What are food additives ?

What are food additives

In its broadest sense, a food additive is any substance added to food. Legally, the term refers to “any substance the intended use of which results or may reasonably be expected to result — directly or indirectly — in its becoming a component or otherwise affecting the characteristics of any food” ¹. This definition includes any substance used in the production, processing, treatment, packaging, transportation or storage of food. The purpose of the legal definition, however, is to impose a premarket approval requirement. Therefore, this definition excludes ingredients whose use is generally recognized as safe (where government approval is not needed), those ingredients approved for use by U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) or the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prior to the food additives provisions of law, and color additives and pesticides where other legal premarket approval requirements apply.

• Direct food additives are those that are added to a food for a specific purpose in that food. For example, xanthan gum — used in salad dressings, chocolate milk, bakery fillings, puddings and other foods to add texture — is a direct additive. Most direct additives are identified on the ingredient label of foods.

• Indirect food additives are those that become part of the food in trace amounts due to its packaging, storage or other handling. For instance, minute amounts of packaging substances may find their way into foods during storage. Food packaging manufacturers must prove to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) that all materials coming in contact with food are safe before they are permitted for use in such a manner.

Food additives can be used to ²:

Improve the taste or appearance of a processed food

• Provide color and enhance flavor: Certain colors improve the appearance of foods. Many spices, as well as natural and man-made flavors, bring out the taste of food. For example, beeswax – glazing agent ³ may be used to coat apples to improve their appearance.
• Give the food a smooth and consistent texture: Emulsifiers prevent liquid products from separating. Stabilizers and thickeners provide an even texture. Anticaking agents allow substances to flow freely.

Improve the keeping quality or stability of a food

• Control the acid-base balance of foods and provide leavening: Certain additives help change the acid-base balance of foods to get a certain flavor or color. Leavening agents that release acids when they are heated react with baking soda to help biscuits, cakes, and other baked goods rise. For example, sorbitol – humectant ⁴ may be added to mixed dried fruit to maintain the moisture level and softness of the fruit.

Preserve food when this is the most practical way of extending its storage life.

• Improve or preserve the nutrient value: Many foods and drinks are fortified and enriched to provide vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients. Examples of commonly fortified foods are flour, cereal, margarine, and milk. This helps make up for vitamins or minerals that may be low or lacking in a person’s diet. All products that contain added nutrients must be labeled.
• Maintain the wholesomeness of foods: Bacteria and other germs can cause foodborne illnesses. Preservatives reduce the spoilage that these germs can cause. Certain preservatives help preserve the flavor in baked goods by preventing the fats and oils from going bad.
  Preservatives also keep fresh fruits from turning brown when they are exposed to the air. For example, sulphur dioxide – preservative ⁵ is added to some meat products such as sausage meat to limit microbial growth.

Many substances used as additives also occur naturally, such as vitamin C or ascorbic acid ⁶ in fruit, or lecithin ⁷, which is present in egg yolks, soya beans, peanuts and maize. The human body cannot distinguish between a chemical naturally present in a food and that same chemical present as an additive.

Side Effects of Food Additives

Most concerns about food additives have to do with man-made ingredients that are added to foods. Some of these are:

• Antibiotics given to food-producing animals, such as chickens and cows
• Antioxidants in oily or fatty foods
• Artificial sweeteners, such as aspartame, saccharin, sodium cyclamate, and sucralose
• Benzoic acid in fruit juices
• Lecithin, gelatins, cornstarch, waxes, gums, and propylene glycol in food stabilizers and emulsifiers
• Many different dyes and coloring substances
• Monosodium glutamate (MSG)
• Nitrates and nitrites in hot dogs and other processed meat products
• Sulfites in beer, wine, and packaged vegetables

The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has a list of food additives that are thought to be safe. Many have not been tested, but most scientists consider them safe. These substances are put on the “generally recognized as safe (GRAS)” list. This list contains about 700 items.

Congress defines safe as “reasonable certainty that no harm will result from use” of an additive. Examples of items on this list are: guar gum, sugar, salt, and vinegar. The list is reviewed regularly.

Some substances that are found to be harmful to people or animals may still be allowed, but only at the level of 1/100th of the amount that is considered harmful. For their own protection, people with any allergies or food intolerances should always check the ingredient list on the label. Reactions to any additive can be mild or severe. For example, some people with asthma have worsening of their asthma after eating foods or drinks that contain sulfites.

It is important to keep gathering information about the safety of food additives. Report any reactions you have to food or food additives to the FDA Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN). Information about reporting a reaction is available at: The Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. (https://www.fda.gov/AboutFDA/CentersOffices/OfficeofFoods/CFSAN/ContactCFSAN/default.htm ⁸

What Is a Color Additive ?

A color additive is any dye, pigment or substance which when added or applied to a food, drug or cosmetic, or to the human body, is capable (alone or through reactions with other substances) of imparting color. FDA is responsible for regulating all color additives to ensure that foods containing color additives are safe to eat, contain only approved ingredients and are accurately labeled.

Color additives are used in foods for many reasons:

1. To offset color loss due to exposure to light, air, temperature extremes, moisture and storage conditions;
2. To correct natural variations in color;
3. To enhance colors that occur naturally; and
4. To provide color to colorless and “fun” foods.

Without color additives, colas wouldn’t be brown, margarine wouldn’t be yellow and mint ice cream wouldn’t be green. Color additives are now recognized as an important part of practically all processed foods we eat.

FDA’s permitted colors are classified as subject to certification or exempt from certification, both of which are subject to rigorous safety standards prior to their approval and listing for use in foods.

• Certified colors are synthetically produced (or human made) and used widely because they impart an intense, uniform color, are less expensive, and blend more easily to create a variety of hues. There are nine certified color additives approved for use in the United States (e.g., FD&C Yellow No. 6. See chart for complete list.). Certified food colors generally do not add undesirable flavors to foods.

• Colors that are exempt from certification include pigments derived from natural sources such as vegetables, minerals or animals. Nature derived color additives are typically more expensive than certified colors and may add unintended flavors to foods. Examples of exempt colors include annatto extract (yellow), dehydrated beets (bluish-red to brown), caramel (yellow to tan), beta-carotene (yellow to orange) and grape skin extract (red, green).

How Are Additives Approved for Use in Foods ?

Today, food and color additives are more strictly studied, regulated and monitored than at any other time in history. FDA has the primary legal responsibility for determining their safe use. To market a new food or color additive (or before using an additive already approved for one use in another manner not yet approved), a manufacturer or other sponsor must first petition FDA for its approval. These petitions must provide evidence that the substance is safe for the ways in which it will be used. As a result of recent legislation, since 1999, indirect additives have been approved via a premarket notification process requiring the same data as was previously required by petition.

When evaluating the safety of a substance and whether it should be approved, FDA considers:

1. The composition and properties of the substance,
2. The amount that would typically be consumed,
3. Immediate and long-term health effects, and
4. Various safety factors.

The evaluation determines an appropriate level of use that includes a built-in safety margin – a factor that allows for uncertainty about the levels of consumption that are expected to be harmless. In other words, the levels of use that gain approval are much lower than what would be expected to have any adverse effect.

Because of inherent limitations of science, FDA can never be absolutely certain of the absence of any risk from the use of any substance. Therefore, FDA must determine – based on the best science available – if there is a reasonable certainty of no harm to consumers when an additive is used as proposed.

If an additive is approved, FDA issues regulations that may include the types of foods in which it can be used, the maximum amounts to be used, and how it should be identified on food labels. In 1999, procedures changed so that FDA now consults with USDA during the review process for ingredients that are proposed for use in meat and poultry products. Federal officials then monitor the extent of Americans’ consumption of the new additive and results of any new research on its safety to ensure its use continues to be within safe limits.

If new evidence suggests that a product already in use may be unsafe, or if consumption levels have changed enough to require another look, federal authorities may prohibit its use or conduct further studies to determine if the use can still be considered safe.

Regulations known as Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) limit the amount of food ingredients used in foods to the amount necessary to achieve the desired effect.

Why Are Food and Color Ingredients Added to Food ?

Food additives perform a variety of useful functions in foods that consumers often take for granted. Some food additives could be eliminated if we were willing to grow our own food, harvest and grind it, spend many hours cooking and canning, or accept increased risks of food spoilage. But most consumers today rely on the many technological, aesthetic and convenient benefits that additives provide.

Following are some reasons why food additives are added to foods ¹:

• To Maintain or Improve Safety and Freshness: Preservatives slow product spoilage caused by mold, air, bacteria, fungi or yeast. In addition to maintaining the quality of the food, they help control contamination that can cause foodborne illness, including life-threatening botulism. One group of preservatives — antioxidants — prevents fats and oils and the foods containing them from becoming rancid or developing an off-flavor. They also prevent cut fresh fruits such as apples from turning brown when exposed to air.

• To Improve or Maintain Nutritional Value: Vitamins and minerals (and fiber) are added to many foods to make up for those lacking in a person’s diet or lost in processing, or to enhance the nutritional quality of a food. Such fortification and enrichment has helped reduce malnutrition in the U.S. and worldwide. All products containing added nutrients must be appropriately labeled.

• Improve Taste, Texture and Appearance: Spices, natural and artificial flavors, and sweeteners are added to enhance the taste of food. Food colors maintain or improve appearance. Emulsifiers, stabilizers and thickeners give foods the texture and consistency consumers expect. Leavening agents allow baked goods to rise during baking. Some additives help control the acidity and alkalinity of foods, while other ingredients help maintain the taste and appeal of foods with reduced fat content.

Common food additives

Acidity regulator

A food additive, which controls the acidity or alkalinity of a food. Added to beverages, frozen desserts, chocolate, low acid canned foods, baking powder.

Names Found on Product Labels: Lactic acid, citric acid, ammonium hydroxide, sodium carbonate.

• acid
• acidifier
• acidity regulator
• alkali
• base
• buffer
• buffering agent
• pH adjusting agent

Anticaking agent

Reduces the tendency of particles of food to adhere to one another. Keep powdered foods free-flowing, prevent moisture absorption. Added to Salt, baking powder, confectioner’s sugar.

Names Found on Product Labels: Calcium silicate, iron ammonium citrate, silicon dioxide.

• anticaking agent
• anti-stick agent
• drying agent
• dusting agent

Antifoaming agent

A food additive, which prevents or reduces foaming.

• antifoaming agent
• defoaming agent

Antioxidant

A food additive, which prolongs the shelf-life of foods by protecting against deterioration caused by oxidation.

• antibrowning agent
• antioxidant
• antioxidant synergist

Bleaching agent

A food additive (non-flour use) used to decolourize food. Bleaching agents do not include pigments.

• bleaching agent

Bulking agent

A food additive, which contributes to the bulk of a food without contributing significantly to its available energy value.

• bulking agent
• filler

Carbonating agent

A food additive used to provide carbonation in a food.

• carbonating agent

Carrier

A food additive used to dissolve, dilute, disperse or otherwise physically modify a food additive or nutrient without altering its function (and without exerting any technological effect itself) in order to facilitate its handling, application or use of the food additive or nutrient.

• carrier
• carrier solvent
• diluent for other food additives
• encapsulating agent
• nutrient carrier

Color

A food additive, which adds or restores colour in a food.

Names Found on Product Labels: FD&C Blue Nos. 1 and 2, FD&C Green No. 3, FD&C Red Nos. 3 and 40, FD&C Yellow Nos. 5 and 6, Orange B, Citrus Red No. 2, annatto extract, beta-carotene, grape skin extract, cochineal extract or carmine, paprika oleoresin, caramel color, fruit and vegetable juices, saffron (Note: Exempt color additives are not required to be declared by name on labels but may be declared simply as colorings or color added).

• colour
• decorative pigment
• surface colorant

Color retention agent

A food additive, which stabilizes, retains or intensifies the colour of a food.

• color adjunct
• color fixative
• color retention agent
• color stabilizer.

Dough Strengtheners and Conditioners

Produce more stable dough. Added to breads and other baked goods.

Names Found on Product Labels: Ammonium sulfate, azodicarbonamide, L-cysteine

Emulsifier

A food additive, which forms or maintains a uniform emulsion of two or more phases in a food. Keep emulsified products stable, reduce stickiness, control crystallization, keep ingredients dispersed, and to help products dissolve more easily. Used in salad dressings, peanut butter, chocolate, margarine, frozen desserts

Names Found on Product Labels: Soy lecithin, mono- and diglycerides, egg yolks, polysorbates, sorbitan monostearate.

• clouding agent
• crystallization inhibitor
• density adjustment agent (flavouring oils in beverages)
• dispersing agent
• emulsifier
• plasticizer
• surface active agent
• suspension agent.

In a laboratory study involving mice ⁹ dietary emulsifiers promoted colon cancer in a mouse model by altering gut microbes and increasing gut inflammation. Our digestive tract is home to 100 trillion bacteria. Collectively known as the gut microbiota, these bacteria help with metabolism and maintaining a healthy immune system. Changes in this microbial community can cause chronic diseases. Dietary emulsifiers are added to many processed foods to improve texture and extend shelf life. Chemically similar to detergents, they have been shown to alter the mucus barrier and the microbes associated with it. To determine whether these might play a role in chronic diseases, the researchers fed mice low levels of 2 commonly used emulsifiers, carboxymethylcellulose or polysorbate-80, in drinking water or in food ⁹.

Mice fed the emulsifiers for 12 weeks developed low-grade intestinal inflammation and metabolic syndrome — a group of conditions that increase the risk for type 2 diabetes, heart disease, and stroke. Mice that were genetically engineered to be more prone to inflammation and gut microbe changes developed colitis when fed the emulsifiers.

Mice that consumed the emulsifiers had an altered bacterial composition and thinner intestinal mucus, so that bacteria were closer to the cells lining the colon. The mice also had weight gain, increased food consumption, increased fat mass, and impaired glucose handling, a sign of metabolic syndrome.

When the researchers fed emulsifiers to germ-free mice, which don’t have gut microbiota, the mice showed no signs of gut inflammation, mucus thinning, or metabolic syndrome. This suggests that the effects of the emulsifiers were most likely caused by altering gut bacteria.

When gut microbes from normal, emulsifier-fed mice were transplanted into germ-free mice that hadn’t been fed emulsifiers, the mice developed low grade inflammation, increased fat mass, and glucose intolerance. These results showed that changes in the gut microbiota caused by dietary emulsifiers can drive inflammation and metabolic changes.

Here, the researchers demonstrate in a preclinical model of colitis-induced colorectal cancer that regular consumption of dietary emulsifiers, carboxymethylcellulose or polysorbate-80, exacerbated tumor development. Enhanced tumor development was associated with an altered microbiota metagenome characterized by elevated levels of lipopolysaccharide and flagellin. We found that emulsifier-induced alterations in the microbiome were necessary and sufficient to drive alterations in major proliferation and apoptosis signaling pathways thought to govern tumor development. Overall, our findings support the concept that perturbations in host–microbiota interactions that cause low-grade gut inflammation can promote colon carcinogenesis.

The researchers are now testing additional emulsifiers. They are also designing experiments to examine the effects of food additives in humans.

Emulsifying salt

A food additive, which, in the manufacture of processed food, rearranges proteins in order to prevent fat separation.

• emulsifying salt
• emulsifying salt synergist
• melding salt.

Enzyme Preparations

Modify proteins, polysaccharides and fats. Added to cheese, dairy products, meat.

Names Found on Product Labels: Enzymes, lactase, papain, rennet, chymosin

Fat Replacers (and components of formulations used to replace fats)

Provide expected texture and a creamy “mouth-feel” in reduced-fat foods. Used in baked goods, dressings, frozen desserts, confections, cake and dessert mixes, dairy products.

Names Found on Product Labels: Olestra, cellulose gel, carrageenan, polydextrose, modified food starch, microparticulated egg white protein, guar gum, xanthan gum, whey protein concentrate.

Firming agent

A food additive, which makes or keeps tissues of fruit or vegetables firm and crisp, or interacts with gelling agents to produce or strengthen a gel. Maintain crispness and firmness. Added to processed fruits and vegetables.

Names Found on Product Labels: Calcium chloride, calcium lactate, aluminium ammonium sulfate, aluminium sulfate

• firming agent

Flavor and spices

Add specific flavors (natural and synthetic) to pudding and pie fillings, gelatin dessert mixes, cake mixes, salad dressings, candies, soft drinks, ice cream, BBQ sauce

Names Found on Product Labels: Natural flavoring, artificial flavor, and spices.

Flavor enhancer

A food additive, which enhances the existing taste and/or odour of a food.

Names Found on Product Labels: Monosodium glutamate (MSG), hydrolyzed soy protein, autolyzed yeast extract, disodium guanylate or inosinate.

• flavour enhancer
• flavour synergist

Flour treatment agent

A food additive, which is added to flour or dough to improve its baking quality or colour.

• dough conditioner
• dough strengthening agent
• flour bleaching agent
• flour improver
• flour treatment agent

Foaming agent

A food additive, which makes it possible to form or maintain a uniform dispersion of a gaseous phase in a liquid or solid food.

• aerating agent
• foaming agent
• whipping agent.

Gases

Serve as propellant, aerate, or create carbonation. Used with oil cooking spray, whipped cream, carbonated beverages.

Names Found on Product Labels: Carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide

Gelling agent

A food additive, which gives a food texture through formation of a gel.

• gelling agent

Glazing agent

A food additive, which when applied to the external surface of a food, imparts a shiny appearance or provides a protective coating.

• coating agent
• film forming agent
• glazing agent
• polishing agent
• sealing agent
• surface-finishing agent

Humectant

A food additive, which prevents food from drying out by counteracting the effect of a dry atmosphere. Retain moisture. Added to shredded coconut, marshmallows, soft candies, confections.

Names Found on Product Labels: Glycerin, sorbitol.

• humectant
• moisture/water retention agent
• wetting agent.

Leavening Agents

Promote rising of baked goods. Used in breads and other baked goods.

Names Found on Product Labels: Baking soda, monocalcium phosphate, calcium carbonate.

Nutrients

Replace vitamins and minerals lost in processing (enrichment), add nutrients that may be lacking in the diet (fortification). Added to flour, breads, cereals, rice, macaroni, margarine, salt, milk, fruit beverages, energy bars, instant breakfast drinks.

Names Found on Product Labels: Thiamine hydrochloride, riboflavin (Vitamin B2), niacin, niacinamide, folate or folic acid, beta carotene, potassium iodide, iron or ferrous sulfate, alpha tocopherols, ascorbic acid, Vitamin D, amino acids (L-tryptophan, L-lysine, L-leucine, L-methionine).

Packaging gas

A food additive gas, which is introduced into a container before, during or after filling with food with the intention to protect the food, for example, from oxidation or spoilage.

• packaging gas

Preservative

A food additive, which prolongs the shelf-life of a food by protecting against deterioration caused by microorganisms.

Names Found on Product Labels: Ascorbic acid, citric acid, sodium benzoate, calcium propionate, sodium erythorbate, sodium nitrite, calcium sorbate, potassium sorbate, BHA, BHT, EDTA, tocopherols (Vitamin E).

• antimicrobial preservative
• antimicrobial synergist
• antimould and antirope agent
• antimycotic agent
• bacteriophage control agent
• fungistatic agent
• preservative

Propellant

A food additive gas, which expels a food from a container.

• propellant

Raising agent

A food additive or a combination of food additives, which liberate(s) gas and thereby increase(s) the volume of a dough or batter.

• raising agent

Sequestrant

A food additive, which controls the availability of a cation.

• sequestrant

Stabilizer

A food additive, which makes it possible to maintain a uniform dispersion of two or more components.

• binder
• colloidal stabilizer
• emulsion stabilizer
• foam stabilizer
• stabilizer
• stabilizer synergist

Sweetener

A food additive (other than a mono- or disaccharide sugar), which imparts a sweet taste to a food.

Names Found on Product Labels: Sucrose (sugar), glucose, fructose, sorbitol, mannitol, corn syrup, high fructose corn syrup, saccharin, aspartame, sucralose, acesulfame potassium (acesulfame-K), neotame.

• bulk sweetener
• intense sweetener
• sweetener

Thickener

A food additive, which increases the viscosity of a food. Produce uniform texture, improve “mouth-feel.” Used in frozen desserts, dairy products, cakes, pudding and gelatin mixes, dressings, jams and jellies, sauces.

Names Found on Product Labels: Gelatin, pectin, guar gum, carrageenan, xanthan gum, whey.

• binder
• bodying agent
• texturizing agent
• thickener
• thickener synergist

Yeast Nutrients

Promote growth of yeast. Used in breads and other baked goods.

Names Found on Product Labels: Calcium sulfate, ammonium phosphate.

Food additives to avoid

Table 1. Banned Additives 

Additive	Function	Problem (Year Banned)
Artificial Colorings:
Butter yellow	artificial coloring	Toxic, later found to cause liver cancer (1919)
Green 1	artificial coloring	Liver cancer (1965)
Green 2	artificial coloring	Insufficient economic importance to be tested (1965)
Orange 1	artificial coloring	Organ damage (1956)
Orange 2	artificial coloring	Organ damage (1960)
Orange B	artificial coloring	Contained low levels of a cancer-causing contaminant. Orange B was used only in sausage casings to color sausages, but is no longer used in the United States (1978, ban never finalized).
Red 1	artificial coloring	Liver cancer (1961)
Red 2	artificial coloring	Possible carcinogen (1976)
Red 4	artificial coloring	High levels damaged adrenal cortex of dog; after 1965 it was used only in maraschino cherries and certain pills; it is still allowed in externally applied drugs and cosmetics (1976).
Red 32	artificial coloring	Damages internal organs and may be a weak carcinogen; since 1956 it continues to be used under the name Citrus Red 2 only to color oranges (2 ppm) (1956).
Sudan 1	artificial coloring	Toxic, later found to be carcinogenic (1919).
Violet 1	artificial coloring	Cancer (it had been used to stamp the Department of Agriculture’s inspection mark on beef carcasses) (1973).
Yellow 1 & 2	artificial coloring	Intestinal lesions at high dosages (1959).
Yellow 3	artificial coloring	Heart damage at high dosages (1959).
Yellow 4	artificial coloring	Heart damage at high dosages (1959).
Other Additives:
agene (nitrogen trichloride)	flour bleaching and aging agent	Dogs that ate bread made from treated flour suffered epileptic-like fits; the toxic agent was methionine sulfoxime (1949).
cinnamyl anthranilate	artificial flavoring	Liver cancer (1982)
cobalt salts	stabilize beer foam	Toxic effects on heart (1966)
coumarin	natural flavoring	Liver poison (1970)
cyclamate	artificial sweetener	Bladder cancer, damage to testes; now not thought to cause cancer directly, but to increase the potency of other carcinogens (1969).
diethyl pyrocarbonate (DEPC)	preservative (beverages)	Combines with ammonia to form urethane, a carcinogen (1972)
dulcin (p-ethoxy-phenylurea)	artificial sweetener	Liver cancer (1950)
ethylene glycol	solvent	Kidney damage (1998)
monochloroacetic acid	preservative	Highly toxic (1941)
nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA)	plant-derived antioxidant	Kidney damage (1968 by FDA, 1971 by USDA)
oil of calamus	natural flavoring	Intestinal cancer (1968)
polyoxyethylene-8-stearate (Myrj 45)	emulsifier	High levels caused bladder stones and tumors (1952)
safrole	natural flavoring (root beer)	Liver cancer (1960)
thiourea	preservative	Liver cancer (c. 1950)

[Source: Center for Science in the Public Interest ¹⁰]

List of food additives

Table 2. Approved Food additives – alphabetical list ¹¹

ADDITIVE	NUMBER
Acacia or gum Arabic	414
Acesulphame potassium	950
Acetic acid, glacial	260
Acetic and fatty acid esters of glycerol	472a
Acetylated distarch adipate	1422
Acetylated distarch phosphate	1414
Acetylated oxidised starch	1451
Acid treated starch	1401
Adipic acid	355
Advantame	969
Agar	406
Alginic acid	400
Alitame	956
Alkaline treated starch	1402
Alkanet or Alkannin	103
Allura red AC	129
Aluminium	173
Aluminium silicate	559
Amaranth	123
Ammonium acetate	264
Ammonium adipates	359
Ammonium alginate	403
Ammonium carbonate	503
Ammonium chloride	510
Ammonium citrate	380
Ammonium fumarate	368
Ammonium hydrogen carbonate	503
Ammonium lactate	328
Ammonium malate	349
Ammonium phosphate, dibasic	342
Ammonium phosphate, monobasic or Ammonium dihydrogen phosphates	342
Ammonium salts of phosphatidic acid	442
α-Amylase	1100
Annatto extracts	160b
Anthocyanins or Grape skin extract or Blackcurrant extract	163
Arabinogalactan or larch gum	409
Ascorbic acid	300
Ascorbyl palmitate	304
Aspartame	951
Aspartame-acesulphame salt	962
Azorubine or Carmoisine	122
b-apo-8′-Carotenoic acid methyl or ethyl ester	160f
b-apo-8′-Carotenal	160e
Beeswax, white and yellow	901
Beet red	162
Bentonite	558
Benzoic acid	210
Bleached starch	1403
Bone phosphate	542
Brilliant black BN or Brilliant Black PN	151
Brilliant Blue FCF	133
Brown HT	155
Butane	943a
Butylated hydroxyanisole	320
Butylated hydroxytoluene	321
Calcium acetate	263
Calcium alginate	404
Calcium aluminium silicate	556
Calcium ascorbate	302
Calcium benzoate	213
Calcium carbonate	170
Calcium chloride	509
Calcium citrate	333
Calcium disodium ethylenediaminetetraacetate or calcium disodium EDTA	385
Calcium fumarate	367
Calcium gluconate	578
Calcium glutamate	623
Calcium hydroxide	526
Calcium lactate	327
Calcium lactylate	482
Calcium lignosulphonate (40-65)	1522
Calcium malate	352
Calcium oleyl lactylate	482
Calcium oxide	529
Calcium phosphate, dibasic or calcium
hydrogen phosphate	341
Calcium phosphate, monobasic or calcium dihydrogen phosphate	341
Calcium phosphate, tribasic	341
Calcium propionate	282
Calcium silicate	552
Calcium sorbate	203
Calcium stearoyl lactylate	482
Calcium sulphate	516
Calcium tartrate	354
Caramel I	150a
Caramel II	150b
Caramel III	150c
Caramel IV	150d
Carbon blacks or Vegetable carbon	153
Carbon dioxide	290
Carnauba wax	903
Carotene	160a
Carrageenan	407
Cellulose microcrystalline	460
Cellulose, powdered	460
Chlorophyll	140
Chlorophyll-copper complex	141
Chlorophyllin copper complex, sodium and potassium salts	141
Choline salts	1001
Citric acid	330
Citric and fatty acid esters of glycerol	472c
Cochineal or carmines or carminic acid	120
Cupric sulphate	519
Curcumin or turmeric	100
Cyclamate or calcium cyclamate or sodium cyclamate	952
Dextrin roasted starch	1400
Diacetyltartaric and fatty acid esters of glycerol	472e
Dioctyl sodium sulphosuccinate	480
Disodium-5′-ribonucleotides	635
Disodium-5′-guanylate	627
Disodium-5′-inosinate	631
Distarch phosphate	1412
Dodecyl gallate	312
Enzyme treated starches	1405
Erythorbic acid	315
Erythritol	968
Erythrosine	127
Ethyl lauroyl arginate	243
Ethyl maltol	637
Fatty acid salts of aluminium, ammonia, calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium	470
Fast green FCF	143
Ferric ammonium citrate	381
Ferrous gluconate	579
Flavoxanthin	161a
Fumaric acid	297
Gellan gum	418
Glucono δ-lactone or Glucono
delta-lactone	575
Glucose oxidase	1102
L-glutamic acid	620
Glycerin or glycerol	422
Glycerol esters of wood rosins	445
Glycine	640
Gold	175
Green S	142
Guar gum	412
4-hexylresorcinol	586
Hydrochloric acid	507
Hydroxypropyl cellulose	463
Hydroxypropyl distarch phosphate	1442
Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose	464
Hydroxypropyl starch	1440
Indigotine	132
Iron oxide	172
Isobutane	943b
Isomalt	953
Karaya gum	416
Kryptoxanthin	161c
L-cysteine monohydrochloride	920
L-Leucine	641
Lactic acid	270
Lactic and fatty acid esters of glycerol	472b
Lactitol	966
Lecithin	322
Lipases	1104
Locust bean gum or carob bean gum	410
Lutein	161b
Lycopene	160d
Lysozyme	1105
Magnesium carbonate	504
Magnesium chloride	511
Magnesium gluconate	580
Magnesium glutamate	625
Magnesium lactate	329
Magnesium oxide	530
Magnesium phosphate, dibasic	343
Magnesium phosphate, monobasic	343
Magnesium phosphate, tribasic	343
Magnesium silicate or Talc	553
Magnesium sulphate	518
Malic acid	296
Maltitol and maltitol syrup or hydrogenated glucose syrup	965
Maltol	636
Mannitol	421
Metatartaric acid	353
Methyl ethyl cellulose	465
Methyl cellulose	461
Methylparaben or Methyl-p-hydroxy-benzoate	218
Mixed tartaric, acetic and fatty acid esters of glycerol or tartaric, acetic and fatty acid esters of glycerol (mixed)	472f
Mono- and di-glycerides of fatty acids	471
Monoammonium L-glutamate	624
Monopotassium L-glutamate	622
Monosodium L-glutamate or MSG	621
Monostarch phosphate	1410
Natamycin or pimaricin	235
Neotame	961
Nisin	234
Nitrogen	941
Nitrous oxide	942
Octafluorocyclobutane	946
Octyl gallate	311
Oxidised polyethylene	914
Oxidised starch	1404
Paprika oleoresins	160c
Pectin	440
Petrolatum or petroleum jelly	905b
Phosphated distarch phosphate	1413
Phosphoric acid	338
Polydextrose	1200
Polydimethylsiloxane or Dimethylpolysiloxane	900a
Polyethylene glycol 8000	1521
Polyglycerol esters of fatty acids	475
Polyglycerol esters of interesterified ricinoleic acid	476
Polyoxyethylene (40) stearate	431
Polysorbate 60 or Polyoxyethylene (20)    sorbitan monostearate	435
Polysorbate 65 or Polyoxyethylene (20)     sorbitan tristearate	436
Polysorbate 80 or Polyoxyethylene (20)     sorbitan monooleate	433
Polyvinylpyrrolidone	1201
Ponceau 4R	124
Potassium acetate or Potassium diacetate	261
Potassium adipate	357
Potassium alginate	402
Potassium aluminium silicate	555
Potassium ascorbate	303
Potassium benzoate	212
Potassium bicarbonate	501
Potassium bisulphite	228
Potassium carbonate	501
Potassium chloride	508
Potassium citrate	332
Potassium dihydrogen citrate	332
Potassium ferrocyanide	536
Potassium fumarate	366
Potassium gluconate	577
Potassium lactate	326
Potassium malate	351
Potassium metabisulphite	224
Potassium nitrate	252
Potassium nitrite	249
Potassium phosphate, dibasic	340
Potassium phosphate, monobasic	340
Potassium phosphate, tribasic	340
Potassium polymetaphosphate	452
Potassium propionate	283
Potassium pyrophosphate	450
Potassium silicate	560
Potassium sodium tartrate	337
Potassium sorbate	202
Potassium sulphate	515
Potassium sulphite	225
Potassium tartrate or Potassium acid tartrate	336
Potassium tripolyphosphate	451
Processed eucheuma seaweed	407a
Propane	944
Propionic acid	280
Propyl gallate	310
Propylene glycol	1520
Propylene glycol alginate	405
Propylene glycol mono- and di-esters or Propylene glycol esters of fatty acids	477
Propylparaben or Propyl-p-hydroxy-benzoate	216
Proteases (papain, bromelain, ficin)	1101
Quillaia extract (type 1)	999(i)
Quillaia extract (type 2)	999(ii)
Quinoline yellow	104
Rhodoxanthin	161f
Riboflavin	101
Riboflavin-5′-phosphate sodium	101
Rubixanthin	161d
Saccharin or calcium saccharine or sodium saccharine or potassium saccharine	954
Saffron or crocetin or crocin	164
Shellac	904
Silicon dioxide, amorphous	551
Silver	174
Sodium acetate	262
Sodium acid pyrophosphate	450
Sodium alginate	401
Sodium aluminium phosphate	541
Sodium aluminosilicate	554
Sodium ascorbate	301
Sodium benzoate	211
Sodium bicarbonate	500
Sodium bisulphite	222
Sodium carbonate	500
Sodium carboxymethylcellulose	466
Sodium citrate	331
Sodium diacetate	262
Sodium dihydrogen citrate	331
Sodium erythorbate	316
Sodium ferrocyanide	535
Sodium fumarate	365
Sodium gluconate	576
Sodium hydrogen malate	350
Sodium hydrosulphite	–
Sodium lactate	325
Sodium lactylate	481
Sodium malate	350
Sodium metabisulphite	223
Sodium metaphosphate, insoluble	452
Sodium nitrate	251
Sodium nitrite	250
Sodium oleyl lactylate	481
Sodium phosphate, dibasic	339
Sodium phosphate, monobasic	339
Sodium phosphate, tribasic	339
Sodium polyphosphates, glassy	452
Sodium propionate	281
Sodium pyrophosphate	450
Sodium sorbate	201
Sodium stearoyl lactylate	481
Sodium sulphate	514
Sodium sulphite	221
Sodium tartrate	335
Sodium tripolyphosphate	451
Sorbic acid	200
Sorbitan monostearate	491
Sorbitan tristearate	492
Sorbitol or sorbitol syrup	420
Stannous chloride	512
Starch acetate	1420
Starch sodium octenylsuccinate	1450
Stearic acid or fatty acid	570
Steviol glycosides	960
Succinic acid	363
Sucralose	955
Sucrose acetate isobutyrate	444
Sucrose esters of fatty acids	473
Sulphur dioxide	220
Sunset yellow FCF	110
Tannic acid or tannins	181
Tara gum	417
Tartaric acid	334
Tartrazine	102
tert-Butylhydroquinone	319
Thaumatin	957
Titanium dioxide	171
α-Tocopherol	307
δ-Tocopherol	309
γ-Tocopherol	308
Tocopherols concentrate, mixed	307b
Tragacanth gum	413
Triacetin	1518
Triammonium citrate	380
Triethyl citrate	1505
Violoxanthin	161e
Xanthan gum	415
Xylitol	967
Yeast mannoproteins	455

Symbols used in this list: A or α = alpha; β = beta; δ = delta; γ = gamma.

Color Additives Approved for Use in Human Food

Under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (Chapter VII, section 721), color additives, except for coal tar hair dyes, are subject to FDA approval before they may be used in food, drugs, or cosmetics, or in medical devices that come in contact with the bodies of people or animals for a significant period of time ¹².

Table 3. Color Additives Exempt from Batch Certification – Color Additives Approved for Use in Human Food

21 CFR Section	Straight Color	EEC#	Year(2)Approved	Uses and Restrictions
§73.30	Annatto extract	E160b	1963	Foods generally.
§73.40	Dehydrated beets (beet powder)	E162	1967	Foods generally.
§73.75	Canthaxanthin(3)	E161g	1969	Foods generally, NTE(7) 30 mg/lb of solid or semisolid food or per pint of liquid food; May also be used in broiler chicken feed.
§73.85	Caramel	E150a-d	1963	Foods generally.
§73.90	β-Apo-8′-carotenal	E160e	1963	Foods generally, NTE(7): 15 mg/lb solid, 15 mg/pt liquid.
§73.95	β-Carotene	E160a	1964	Foods generally.
§73.100	Cochineal extract	E120	1969	Foods generally
			2009	Food label must use common or usual name “cochineal extract”; effective January 5, 2011
	Carmine	E120	1967	Foods generally
			2009	Food label must use common or usual name “carmine”; effective January 5, 2011
§73.125	Sodium copper chlorophyllin(3)	E141	2002	Citrus-based dry beverage mixes NTE(7) 0.2 percent in dry mix; extracted from alfalfa.
§73.140	Toasted partially defatted cooked cottonseed flour	—-	1964	Foods generally.
§73.160	Ferrous gluconate	—-	1967	Ripe olives.
§73.165	Ferrous lactate	—-	1996	Ripe olives.
§73.169	Grape color extract(3)	E163?	1981	Nonbeverage food.
§73.170	Grape skin extract (enocianina)	E163?	1966	Still & carbonated drinks & ades; beverage bases; alcoholic beverages (restrict. 27 CFR Parts 4 & 5).
§73.200	Synthetic iron oxide(3)	E172	1994	Sausage casings NTE(7) 0.1 percent (by wt).
			2015	Hard and soft candy, mints and chewing gum.
			2015	For allowed human food uses, reduce lead from ≤ 20 ppm to ≤ 5 ppm.
§73.250	Fruit juice(3)	—-	1966	Foods generally.
			1995	Dried color additive.
§73.260	Vegetable juice(3)	—-	1966	Foods generally.
			1995	Dried color additive, water infusion.
§73.300	Carrot oil	—-	1967	Foods generally.
§73.340	Paprika	E160c	1966	Foods generally.
§73.345	Paprika oleoresin	E160c	1966	Foods generally.
§73.350	Mica-based pearlescent pigments	—-	2006	Cereals, confections and frostings, gelatin desserts, hard and soft candies (including lozenges), nutritional supplement tablets and gelatin capsules, and chewing gum.
			2013	Distilled spirits containing not less than 18 % and not more than 23 % alcohol by volume but not including distilled spirits mixtures containing more than 5 % wine on a proof gallon basis.
			2015	Cordials, liqueurs, flavored alcoholic malt beverages, wine coolers, cocktails, nonalcoholic cocktail mixers and mixes and in egg decorating kits.
§73.450	Riboflavin	E101	1967	Foods generally.
§73.500	Saffron	E164	1966	Foods generally.
§73.530	Spirulina extract	—-	2013	Candy and chewing gum.
			2014	Coloring confections (including candy and chewing gum), frostings, ice cream and frozen desserts, dessert coatings and toppings, beverage mixes and powders, yogurts, custards, puddings, cottage cheese, gelatin, breadcrumbs, and ready-to-eat cereals (excluding extruded cereals).
§73.575	Titanium dioxide	E171	1966	Foods generally; NTE(7) 1 percent (by wt).
§73.585	Tomato lycopene extract; tomato lycopene concentrate(3)	E160	2006	Foods generally.
§73.600	Turmeric	E100	1966	Foods generally.
§73.615	Turmeric oleoresin	E100	1966	Foods generally.

[Source: U.S. Food and Drug Administration ¹³]

Notes: (2) The year approved is based on the date listed in the “Confirmation of Effective Date” notice for the action as published in the Federal Register. (3) Petitioned for use after the 1960 amendments; not provisionally listed. (7) NTE – not to exceed.

Table 4. Color Additives Subject To Certification – Color Additives Approved for Use in Human Food

21 CFR Section	Straight Color	EEC#	Year(2)Approved	Uses and Restrictions
§74.101	FD&C Blue No. 1	E133	1969	Foods generally.
			1993	Added Mn spec.
§74.102	FD&C Blue No. 2	E132	1987	Foods generally.
§74.203	FD&C Green No. 3	—-	1982	Foods generally.
§74.250	Orange B(3)	—-	1966	Casings or surfaces of frankfurters and sausages; NTE(7) 150 ppm (by wt).
§74.302	Citrus Red No. 2	—-	1963	Skins of oranges not intended or used for processing; NTE(7) 2.0 ppm (by wt).
§74.303	FD&C Red No. 3	E127	1969	Foods generally.
§74.340	FD&C Red No. 40(3)	E129	1971	Foods generally.
§74.705	FD&C Yellow No. 5	E102	1969	Foods generally.
§74.706	FD&C Yellow No. 6	E110	1986	Foods generally.

[Source: U.S. Food and Drug Administration ¹³]

Note: Color additives listed in table 4 must be analyzed and batch certified by FDA before they can be used in any FDA-regulated product marketed in the U.S. This requirement applies to products imported into this country as well as those manufactured domestically. Manufacturers of certified color additives must include on the label the name of the certified color additive, a statement indicating general use limitations, any quantitative limitations in products, and the certification lot number assigned to the batch. Straight colors required to be certified are listed in 21 CFR Part 74. Most lakes are provisionally listed under 21 CFR 81.1 for use as listed in 21 CFR 82.51 (food, drugs, and cosmetics), 21 CFR 82.1051 (drugs and cosmetics), or 21 CFR 82.2051 (externally applied drugs and cosmetics). All FD&C Red No. 40 lakes are permanently listed under 21 CFR 74.340 (food), 74.1340 (drugs), and 74.2340 (cosmetics). FD&C Blue No. 1 and FD&C Yellow No. 5 aluminum lakes for drug and cosmetic use are permanently listed in 21 CFR sections 74.1101, 74.1705, 74.2101, and 74.2705.

Additional notes: (2) The year approved is based on the date listed in the “Confirmation of Effective Date” notice for the action as published in the Federal Register. (3) Petitioned for use after the 1960 amendments; not provisionally listed. (7) NTE – not to exceed.

Table 5. Approved Food Colours in the European Union

[Source ¹⁴]

Note: The list was last updated 21 July 2016.

1. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Overview of Food Ingredients, Additives & Colors. https://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/FoodAdditivesIngredients/ucm094211.htm[↩][↩]
2. Food Standards Australia New Zealand. Additives. http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/consumer/additives/additiveoverview/Pages/default.aspx[↩]
3. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Beeswax (901). http://www.fao.org/gsfaonline/additives/details.html?id=265[↩]
4. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Sorbitol [420(i)]. http://www.fao.org/gsfaonline/additives/details.html?id=183[↩]
5. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Sulfur dioxide (220). http://www.fao.org/gsfaonline/additives/details.html?id=224[↩]
6. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Ascorbic acid, L- (300). http://www.fao.org/gsfaonline/additives/details.html?id=241[↩]
7. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Lecithin [322(i)]. http://www.fao.org/gsfaonline/additives/details.html?id=77[↩]
8. The Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. (https://www.fda.gov/AboutFDA/CentersOffices/OfficeofFoods/CFSAN/ContactCFSAN/default.htm[↩]
9. Dietary Emulsifier-Induced Low-Grade Inflammation Promotes Colon Carcinogenesis. Cancer Res. 2017 Jan 1;77(1):27-40. doi: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-16-1359. Epub 2016 Nov 7. http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/content/77/1/27.long[↩][↩]
10. Center for Science in the Public Interest. Chemical Cuisine. https://cspinet.org/eating-healthy/chemical-cuisine[↩]
11. Food Standards Australia New Zealand. Alphabetical food additives list. www.foodstandards.gov.au/consumer/labelling/Documents/Food%20additives%20-%20alphabetical%20June%202016.docx[↩]
12. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Color Additives. https://www.fda.gov/ForIndustry/ColorAdditives/default.htm[↩]
13. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Summary of Color Additives for Use in the United States in Foods, Drugs, Cosmetics, and Medical Devices. https://www.fda.gov/ForIndustry/ColorAdditives/ColorAdditiveInventories/ucm115641.htm[↩][↩]
14. Food Standards Agency. Current EU approved additives and their E Numbers. https://www.food.gov.uk/science/additives/enumberlist[↩]