What is black pepper

Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) is a flowering vine, an important member of the family Piperaceae, which is cultivated chiefly for its fruit as a major cash crop more than 30 tropical countries of the world, such as Vietnam, India, Malaysia, Indonesia, China, and Brazil ¹. Black pepper is considered as the “king of spice” due to its global trade and widespread use in cooking and the preservation of food and even has medicinal properties ². Due its medicinal properties, black pepper is used in traditional medicine for its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anticancer properties ³. The black pepper fruit which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning, known as a peppercorn. When fresh and fully mature, it is approximately 5 millimetres (0.20 in) in diameter and dark red, and contains a single seed like all drupes. Peppercorns and the ground pepper derived from them may be described simply as pepper, or more precisely as black pepper (cooked and dried unripe fruit), green pepper (dried unripe fruit), and white pepper (ripe fruit seeds).

Black pepper is native to south India and is extensively cultivated there and elsewhere in tropical regions. Currently, Vietnam is the world’s largest producer and exporter of pepper, producing 34% of the world’s black pepper crop as of 2013.

Dried ground pepper has been used since antiquity both for its flavor and as a traditional medicine. Black pepper is the world’s most traded spice and is one of the most common spices added to cuisines around the world. Its spiciness is due to the chemical piperine, not to be confused with the capsaicin characteristic of chili peppers. It is ubiquitous in the modern world as a seasoning and is often paired with salt.

Pepper gets its spicy heat mostly from piperine derived both from the outer fruit and the seed. Black pepper contains between 4.6% and 9.7% piperine by mass, and white pepper slightly more than that. Refined piperine, by weight, is about one percent as hot as the capsaicin found in chili peppers ⁴. The outer fruit layer, left on black pepper, also contains aroma-contributing terpenes, including germacrene (11%), limonene (10%), pinene (10%), alpha-phellandrene (9%), and beta-caryophyllene (7%) ⁵, which give citrusy, woody, and floral notes. These scents are mostly missing in white pepper, which is stripped of the fruit layer. White pepper can gain different odors (including musty notes) from its longer fermentation stage. The aroma of pepper is attributed to rotundone (3,4,5,6,7,8-Hexahydro-3α,8α-dimethyl-5α-(1-methylethenyl)azulene-1(2H)-one), a sesquiterpene originally discovered in the tubers of cyperus rotundus, which can be detected in concentrations of 0.4 nanograms/L in water and in wine.

Piperine has already shown in test tube study to have leishmanicidal [killing leishmania parasites] activity ⁶. Furthermore, secondary metabolites of black pepper possess active compounds with insecticidal activity, antibacterial, antifungal, and others ⁷.

Figure 1. Black pepper

White pepper vs black pepper

Both white and black peppercorns are berries come from the same plant – the piper nigrum plant. The difference between the two is a matter of processing. Black peppercorns are the ones with which most people are familiar and are picked when the berries are close to being ripe. The berries are sun-dried after picking which darkens their outer layer. With white peppercorns, the outer layer of the berry is removed either before or after it is dried so that only the lighter colored inner seed remains. The outer layer can be removed in a couple of ways. For instance, the berry may be soaked in water and this allows the darker-colored skins to fall off. Another way of removing the skin involves washing the skin off with a continuous flow of water. The latter method creates a cleaner final product. Rubbing then removes what remains of the fruit and the naked seed is dried. Sometimes alternative processes are used for removing the outer pepper from the seed, including removing the outer layer through mechanical, chemical, or biological methods. Because its production process involves more steps, white pepper is usually more expensive than black pepper.

When it comes to heat, white pepper wins out as its spiciness is more pronounced when compared to black pepper. However, many food experts believe that the flavor of white pepper is markedly less complex when compared high-quality black pepper. The outer layer found on black pepper contains compounds that add to the complexity of its flavor. The fact that it has the outer layer gives black pepper a greater range of flavor notes including floral and fruit notes.

Ground white pepper is used in Chinese and Thai cuisine, but also in salads, cream sauces, light-colored sauces, and mashed potatoes (where black pepper would visibly stand out). White pepper has a different flavor from black pepper; it lacks certain compounds present in the outer layer of the drupe. However, in many dishes, you can use whichever of the two peppers you want or have available. While it is possible to substitute either peppercorn for the other, it is also important to note that white pepper is often used to preserve a uniform appearance in cream sauces and other lighter colored dishes. In such dishes, it may not be possible to use black pepper as a substitute unless you have no problem with seeing black specks. It is also important to note that because white pepper is spicier than black pepper, it may be necessary to use more black pepper when using it in place of white.

Figure 2. White pepper

Black pepper essential oil

In black pepper essential oil, 42 compounds were identified, comprising 89% of the oil. The essential oil was characterized by the presence of sesquiterpenes (58.9%) and monoterpenes (26.3%). The sesquiterpene β-caryophyllene was identified as the major compound, representing 26.2% of the oil, followed by the monoterpenes hydrocarbons σ-ocymene (5.8%) and α-pinene (5.5%).

The constituents of black pepper essential oils can vary with environmental conditions, such as climate, soil type and brightness. The biological properties of β-caryophyllene have been confirmed in previous studies involving Leptinotarsa decemlineata [the Colorado potato beetle] (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), S. littoralis ⁸, larvae of Aedes aegypti [larvae of mosquito that can spread dengue fever, chikungunya, Zika fever, Mayaro and yellow fever viruses] ⁹ and Tetranychus urticae [spider mites] ¹⁰. The compound α-pinene has been reported with insecticidal activity in larvae of Culex pipiens [common house mosquito larvae] ¹¹ and as a fumigant against the adult mushroom fly Lycoriella mali (Diptera: Sciaridae) ¹². In summary, an appropriately formulated black pepper or derivative product may have potential as a larvicide for mosquitos control.

Table 1. Composition of black pepper oil

Constituents	Piper nigrum (%)
Monoterpenes hydrocarbons
α-Thujene	1
α-Pinene	5.5
Camphene	—
Sabinene	0.9
β-Pinene	4.1
Myrcene	0.3
Phellandrene	4.1
δ-3-Carene	0.9
α-Terpinene	0.7
σ -Ocymene	5.8
Limonene	2.1
β-E-Ocymene	—
β-Z-Ocymene	—
γ – Terpinene	0.5
Terpinolene	—
p-Mentha-2,4(8)-Diene	0.3
Oxygenated monoterpenes
1,8-Cineol	—
Linalool	—
Limonene oxide –cis	—
Limonene oxide –trans	—
Carvenon	—
Terpinen-4-ol	—
α-Terpineol	0.1
Nerol	—
Neral	—
Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons
δ-Elemene	0.9
α-Cubebene	0.5
α-Copaene	4.2
β-Cubebene	0.2
β-Elemene	1.1
Cyperene	0.2
Bergamotene	—
β-Caryophyllene	26.2
β-Copaene	0.2
Trans-Bergamotene	3.9
α-Germanene	0.5
(z)-β-Farnese	0.2
α -Humulene	2.9
9- EPI – (E)-Caryophyllene	0.3
γ-Muurolene	0.9
Trans-Muurola-4(14),5-Diene	1.5
β–Selinene	1.1
α –Selinene	1.1
Bisabolene	—
β-Bisabolene	4.1
γ-Cadinene	0.6
δ-Cadinene	2.1
Germacrene B	0.5
Oxygenated sesquiterpenes
Bergamotol α-trans	—
Caryophyllene oxide	4.2
Junenol	0.6
Epi-α-Muurolol	0.4
α-Muurolol	0.3
α–Cadinol	0.4
Others
Neril format	—
Neril acetate	—
Geranyl acetate	—
Guaiol acetate	0.7
Benzil benzoato	3
Manool	0.2
Total identified	89

[Source ¹³]

Black pepper nutrition facts

One tablespoon (6 grams) of ground black pepper contains moderate amounts of vitamin K (13% of the daily value or DV), iron (10% DV) and manganese (18% DV), with trace amounts of other essential nutrients, protein and dietary fiber.

Table 2. Black pepper nutrition facts

Nutrient	Unit	Value per 100 g
Approximates
Water	g	12.46
Energy	kcal	251
Energy	kJ	1050
Protein	g	10.39
Total lipid (fat)	g	3.26
Ash	g	4.49
Carbohydrate, by difference	g	63.95
Fiber, total dietary	g	25.3
Sugars, total	g	0.64
Sucrose	g	0.02
Glucose (dextrose)	g	0.24
Fructose	g	0.23
Lactose	g	0
Maltose	g	0
Galactose	g	0.15
Minerals
Calcium, Ca	mg	443
Iron, Fe	mg	9.71
Magnesium, Mg	mg	171
Phosphorus, P	mg	158
Potassium, K	mg	1329
Sodium, Na	mg	20
Zinc, Zn	mg	1.19
Copper, Cu	mg	1.33
Manganese, Mn	mg	12.753
Selenium, Se	µg	4.9
Fluoride, F	µg	34.2
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid	mg	0
Thiamin	mg	0.108
Riboflavin	mg	0.18
Niacin	mg	1.143
Pantothenic acid	mg	1.399
Vitamin B-6	mg	0.291
Folate, total	µg	17
Folic acid	µg	0
Folate, food	µg	17
Folate, DFE	µg	17
Choline, total	mg	11.3
Betaine	mg	8.9
Vitamin B-12	µg	0
Vitamin B-12, added	µg	0
Vitamin A, RAE	µg	27
Retinol	µg	0
Carotene, beta	µg	310
Carotene, alpha	µg	12
Cryptoxanthin, beta	µg	25
Vitamin A, IU	IU	547
Lycopene	µg	20
Lutein + zeaxanthin	µg	454
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol)	mg	1.04
Vitamin E, added	mg	0
Tocopherol, beta	mg	0
Tocopherol, gamma	mg	6.56
Tocopherol, delta	mg	0
Vitamin D (D2 + D3)	µg	0
Vitamin D	IU	0
Vitamin K (phylloquinone)	µg	163.7
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated	g	1.392
4:0	g	0
6:0	g	0.012
8:0	g	0.102
10:0	g	0.036
12:0	g	0.093
13:0	g	0
14:0	g	0.03
15:0	g	0
16:0	g	0.533
17:0	g	0
18:0	g	0.327
20:0	g	0
22:0	g	0
24:0	g	0
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated	g	0.739
14:1	g	0.016
15:1	g	0
16:1 undifferentiated	g	0.077
17:1	g	0
18:1 undifferentiated	g	0.647
18:1 c	g	0.647
18:1 t	g	0
20:1	g	0
22:1 undifferentiated	g	0
24:1 c	g	0
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated	g	0.998
18:2 undifferentiated	g	0.694
18:3 undifferentiated	g	0.152
18:3 n-3 c,c,c (ALA)	g	0.152
18:3 n-6 c,c,c	g	0
18:04:00	g	0
20:2 n-6 c,c	g	0
20:3 undifferentiated	g	0.152
20:4 undifferentiated	g	0
20:5 n-3 (EPA)	g	0
22:5 n-3 (DPA)	g	0
22:6 n-3 (DHA)	g	0
Fatty acids, total trans	g	0
Fatty acids, total trans-monoenoic	g	0
Cholesterol	mg	0
Phytosterols	mg	92
Amino Acids
Tryptophan	g	0.058
Threonine	g	0.244
Isoleucine	g	0.366
Leucine	g	1.014
Lysine	g	0.244
Methionine	g	0.096
Cystine	g	0.138
Phenylalanine	g	0.446
Tyrosine	g	0.483
Valine	g	0.547
Arginine	g	0.308
Histidine	g	0.159
Alanine	g	0.616
Aspartic acid	g	1.413
Glutamic acid	g	1.413
Glycine	g	0.441
Proline	g	1.413
Serine	g	0.409
Hydroxyproline	g	0
Other
Alcohol, ethyl	g	0
Caffeine	mg	0
Theobromine	mg	0
Proanthocyanidin
Proanthocyanidin dimers	mg	0
Proanthocyanidin trimers	mg	0
Proanthocyanidin 4-6mers	mg	0
Proanthocyanidin 7-10mers	mg	0
Proanthocyanidin polymers (>10mers)	mg	0

[Source ¹⁴]

Black pepper health benefits

Piperine, a major alkaloid of black pepper has been shown to possess analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anticonvulsant, antioxidant, antidepressant and cognitive-enhancing effects ¹⁵. It has been shown that piperine protects against neurodegeneration and cognitive impairment in animal model of cognitive deficit like condition of Alzheimer’s disease ¹⁶. Furthermore, in a recent study researchers were able to show that the methanolic extract of black pepper fruits ameliorated Aβ (1–42)-induced spatial memory impairment by attenuation the oxidative stress in the rat hippocampus ¹⁷. Moreover, this may be one of the reasons that this extract could also exert anxiolytic and antidepressant activities ¹⁸. It has been reported that piperine inhibited monoamine oxidase activity, increased monoamine neurotransmitters levels, and thus produced antidepressant-like activity in various mouse models of behavioral despair ¹⁹. The antidepressive effect of piperine has been also observed in mice exposed to chronic mild stress and it was linked to up-regulation of hippocampal progenitor cell proliferation ²⁰. This antidepressant-like effect of piperine in chronically stressed mice was also shown to be mediated by brain-derived neurotrophic factor signaling ²¹.

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