Contents
What is black currant
Black currant (Ribes nigrum L.) is a small, perennial shrub native to central Europe and northern Asia, is cultivated throughout the world, including the United States where it prefers damp fertile soils 1. Black currant is winter hardy, but cold weather at flowering time during the spring reduces the size of the crop. Bunches of small, glossy black fruit develop along the stems in the summer and can be harvested by hand or by machine. The raw fruit is particularly rich in vitamin C and polyphenol phytochemicals. Blackcurrants can be eaten raw but are usually cooked in a variety of sweet or savory dishes. They are used to make jams, jellies and syrups and are grown commercially for the juice market. The fruit is also used in the preparation of alcoholic beverages and both fruit and foliage have uses in traditional medicine and the preparation of dyes.
The fruit of black currants can be eaten raw, but it has a strong, tart flavor. It can be made into jams and jellies which set readily because of the fruit’s high content of pectin and acid. For culinary use, black currant is usually cooked with sugar to produce a purée, which can then be passed through muslin to separate the juice. The purée can be used to make black currant preserves and be included in cheesecakes, yogurt, ice cream, desserts, sorbets and many other sweet dishes. The exceptionally strong flavor can be moderated by combining it with other fruits, such as raspberries and strawberries in summer pudding or apples in crumbles and pies. Black currant juice can be used in syrups and cordials. Black currants are a common ingredient of Rødgrød, a popular kissel-like dessert in North German and Danish cuisines.
Black currants are also used in savory cooking because their astringency creates added flavor in many sauces, meat and other dishes and they are included in some unusual combinations of foods. They can be added to tomato and mint to make a salad, used to accompany roast or grilled lamb, used to accompany seafood and shellfish, used as a dipping sauce at barbecues, blended with mayonnaise, used to invigorate bananas and other tropical fruits, combined with dark chocolate or added to mincemeat in traditional mince pies at Christmas.
Black currant juice
Black currant juice forms the basis for various popular cordials, juice drinks, juices and smoothies. Typically blended with apple or other red fruits, it is also mixed with pomegranate and grape juice. Macerated blackcurrants are also the primary ingredient in the apéritif liqueur crème de cassis, which in turn is added to white wine to produce a Kir or to champagne to make a Kir Royale.
In the United Kingdom, blackcurrant cordial is often mixed with cider (hard cider) to make a drink called “cider and black”. If made with any common British lager beer, it is known as a “lager and black”. The addition of blackcurrant to a mix of cider and lager results in “diesel” or “snakebite and black” available at pubs. A “black ‘n’ black” can be made by adding a small amount of blackcurrant juice to a pint of stout. The head is purple if the shot of juice is placed in the glass first. Blackcurrant juice is sometimes combined with whey in an endurance/energy-type drink.
In Russia, blackcurrant leaves may be used for flavouring tea or preserves, such as salted cucumbers, and berries for home winemaking. Sweetened vodka may also be infused with blackcurrant leaves making a deep greenish-yellow beverage with a tart flavour and astringent taste. The berries may be infused in a similar manner. In Britain, 95% of the blackcurrants grown end up in Ribena (a brand of fruit juice whose name is derived from Ribes nigrum) and similar fruit syrups and juices.
Figure 1. Black currant
Black currant nutrition facts
Raw black currants are 82% water, 15% carbohydrates, 1% protein and 0.4% fat (see Table 1). Per 100 g serving providing 63 calories, the raw fruit has high vitamin C content (218% of the Daily Value, DV) and moderate levels of iron and manganese (12% DV each). Other nutrients are present in negligible amounts (less than 10% DV).
Major anthocyanins in blackcurrant pomace are delphinidin-3-O-glucoside, delphinidin-3-O-rutinoside, cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, and cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside, which are retained in the juice concentrate among other yet unidentified polyphenols.
Black currant seed oil is rich in vitamin E and unsaturated fatty acids, including alpha-linolenic acid and gamma-linolenic acid.
Table 1. Black currant (raw) nutrition facts
| Nutrient | Unit | Value per 100 g | |||||||||
| Approximates | |||||||||||
| Water | g | 81.96 | |||||||||
| Energy | kcal | 63 | |||||||||
| Energy | kJ | 264 | |||||||||
| Protein | g | 1.4 | |||||||||
| Total lipid (fat) | g | 0.41 | |||||||||
| Ash | g | 0.86 | |||||||||
| Carbohydrate, by difference | g | 15.38 | |||||||||
| Minerals | |||||||||||
| Calcium, Ca | mg | 55 | |||||||||
| Iron, Fe | mg | 1.54 | |||||||||
| Magnesium, Mg | mg | 24 | |||||||||
| Phosphorus, P | mg | 59 | |||||||||
| Potassium, K | mg | 322 | |||||||||
| Sodium, Na | mg | 2 | |||||||||
| Zinc, Zn | mg | 0.27 | |||||||||
| Copper, Cu | mg | 0.086 | |||||||||
| Manganese, Mn | mg | 0.256 | |||||||||
| Vitamins | |||||||||||
| Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid | mg | 181 | |||||||||
| Thiamin | mg | 0.05 | |||||||||
| Riboflavin | mg | 0.05 | |||||||||
| Niacin | mg | 0.3 | |||||||||
| Pantothenic acid | mg | 0.398 | |||||||||
| Vitamin B-6 | mg | 0.066 | |||||||||
| Vitamin B-12 | µg | 0 | |||||||||
| Vitamin A, RAE | µg | 12 | |||||||||
| Retinol | µg | 0 | |||||||||
| Vitamin A, IU | IU | 230 | |||||||||
| Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) | mg | 1 | |||||||||
| Lipids | |||||||||||
| Fatty acids, total saturated | g | 0.034 | |||||||||
| 16:00:00 | g | 0.02 | |||||||||
| 18:00:00 | g | 0.007 | |||||||||
| Fatty acids, total monounsaturated | g | 0.058 | |||||||||
| 16:1 undifferentiated | g | 0.001 | |||||||||
| 18:1 undifferentiated | g | 0.056 | |||||||||
| Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated | g | 0.179 | |||||||||
| 18:2 undifferentiated | g | 0.107 | |||||||||
| 18:3 undifferentiated | g | 0.072 | |||||||||
| Fatty acids, total trans | g | 0 | |||||||||
| Cholesterol | mg | 0 | |||||||||
| Anthocyanidins | |||||||||||
| Cyanidin | mg | 62.46 | |||||||||
| Petunidin | mg | 3.9 | |||||||||
| Delphinidin | mg | 89.6 | |||||||||
| Pelargonidin | mg | 1.2 | |||||||||
| Peonidin | mg | 0.7 | |||||||||
| Flavan-3-ols | |||||||||||
| (+)-Catechin | mg | 0.7 | |||||||||
| (-)-Epigallocatechin | mg | 0 | |||||||||
| (-)-Epicatechin | mg | 0.5 | |||||||||
| (-)-Epicatechin 3-gallate | mg | 0 | |||||||||
| (-)-Epigallocatechin 3-gallate | mg | 0 | |||||||||
| (+)-Gallocatechin | mg | 0 | |||||||||
| Flavones | |||||||||||
| Apigenin | mg | 0 | |||||||||
| Luteolin | mg | 0 | |||||||||
| Flavonols | |||||||||||
| Isorhamnetin | mg | 0.1 | |||||||||
| Kaempferol | mg | 0.7 | |||||||||
| Myricetin | mg | 6.2 | |||||||||
| Quercetin | mg | 4.5 | |||||||||
| Isoflavones | |||||||||||
| Daidzein | mg | 0.02 | |||||||||
| Genistein | mg | 0.06 | |||||||||
| Glycitein | mg | 0 | |||||||||
| Total isoflavones | mg | 0.07 | |||||||||
| Formononetin | mg | 0 | |||||||||
| Coumestrol | mg | 0 | |||||||||
| Proanthocyanidin | |||||||||||
| Proanthocyanidin dimers | mg | 2.9 | |||||||||
| Proanthocyanidin trimers | mg | 2.2 | |||||||||
| Proanthocyanidin 4-6mers | mg | 7.8 | |||||||||
| Proanthocyanidin 7-10mers | mg | 7.2 | |||||||||
| Proanthocyanidin polymers (>10mers) | mg | 135.1 | |||||||||
Black currant oil
Blackcurrant seed oil is a rich source of gamma-linolenic acid (omega 6 polyunsaturated fatty acid) ~ 17 percent 3 and is typically consumed as a part of a dietary supplement. This gamma-linolenic acid (omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid) is used for prevention and/or treatment of various degenerative pathologies such as osteoporosis 4, diabetes 5 and cancer 6, 7. Additionally, gamma-linolenic acid has been shown to suppress in vitro (test tube) tumor growth 8, improve oxygenation status 9, exert anti-inflammatory activity and display beneficial effects in the early stages of sepsis 10.
Black currant oil benefits
Numerous studies primarily carried out in the 1980s and 1990s demonstrated that gamma-linolenic acid-enriched botanical oils (evening primrose, borage, blackcurrant seed, and fungal-derived) had the capacity to relieve the signs and symptoms of several chronic inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and atopic dermatitis 11. However, several more recent reviews and meta-analyses have questioned these earlier studies and raised doubts about the clinical effectiveness of gamma-linolenic acid-enriched supplements particularly in the context of atopic dermatitis and rheumatoid arthritis 12 (see Table 2). A variety of issues complicate these studies including the fact that many of the trials have: 1) relatively low subject numbers; 2) less than ideal study designs (e.g. the absence of washout period in cross-over design trials); 3) variations in the types of gamma-linolenic acid supplements and how they are administered (e.g. dose, duration); and 4) differences in selection/inclusion criteria (e.g. population demographics and disease states) 13.
Table 2. Effect of gamma-linolenic acid-enriched oil supplements on various human disease from meta-analyses and recent studies
| Study | Disease1 and Study Type2 | Supplement3 | location | # subjects | # studies | duration | outcome | effect |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Skin | ||||||||
| Morse et al., 1989 14 | Atoptic dermatitis (CO, parallel) | EPO (Epogam) | UK, Italy, Finland | 311 | 9 (EPO) | 4, 8, or 12 wk | Severity of symptoms | reduced severity of symptoms |
| Van Gool et al., 2004 15 | Atoptic dermatitis (RCT, CO, CCT) | EPO, BO, BCO; 90–480mg GLA/d (children); 132–720mg GLA/d (adult) | Germany, Italy, UK, Canada, USA, Finland, Sweden, Switzerland, | 1071 | 22 (total) BO (6) EPO (12) BCO ( 1) | 3–24wk | Severity of symptoms | no effect |
| Bamford et al., 2013 12 | Eczema (AE, AD, AEDS) adult, children (RCTs) | EPO, BO | UK, Italy, Germany, India, NZ, Finland, Sweden, USA, Switzerland | 1596 | 27 (total) 19 (EPO) 8 (BO) | 3–24wk | Severity of symptoms | no effect |
| Morse and Clough, 2006 16 | Atopic eczema | EPO (Efamol®) | 1207 | 26 | 4–8wks | Severity of symptoms | reduced severity of symptoms | |
| Fiocchi et al., 1994 17 | Atoptic dermatitis, infants | EPO, 3g oil/d | Italy | 10 | na | 4wk | Lesion number; Severity of | decrease number (trend); reduced severity of symptoms |
| van Gool et al., 2003 18 | Atoptic dermatitis, infants (RCT) | BO, 100mg/d | Netherlands | 118 | na | 6mo | Incidence in 1st yr; Severity of symptoms | no prevention benefit; reduced severity of symptoms (trend) |
| Kitz et al., 2006 19 | Atoptic dermatitis, infants | GLA, 40mg/d | Germany | 131 | na | 6 mo | Prevention | no effect |
| Kawamura et al., 2011 20 | Atoptic dermatitis, adult | GLA, 200mg/d, oil of Mucor circinelloides in food | Japan | 130 | na | 16wk | Trans-water loss; Nocturnal itching | no effect; decreased |
| Simon et al., 2014 21 | Atoptic dermatitis, children and adult (open study, non-controlled) | EPA, 4–6g GLA/d | Switzerland | 21 | na | 12wk | SCORAD4 index | plasma GLA content correlates with SCORAD |
| Arthritis | ||||||||
| Cameron et al., 2011 22 Macfarlane et al., 2011 23 | Rheumatoid arthritis (RCT, parallel, placebo controlled) | Herbal intervention 525–540mg GLA/d | UK, USA | 286 (total) >90 (in 3 studies) | 22 (total) EPO (2) BCO (1) | 6mo | Morning stiffness; Pain | decreased (2 of 3); no effect |
| Cameron et al., 2011 22 Macfarlane et al., 2011 23 | Rheumatoid arthritis | 1400- 2800mg GLA/d | USA, Finland | >111 | EPO (1) BO (2) BCO (1) | 6mo | Pain; Morning stiffness; Joint tenderness; Joint swelling; | decreased; decreased; improvement; decreased; |
| Asthma | ||||||||
| Arm et al., 2013 24 | Mild asthma, adults (randomized) | BO+EO (GLA, 1.67g/d+ SDA, 0.88g/d) | USA | 37 | na | 3wk | Basophil, Neutrophil leukotriene production (ex vivo) | >50% decrease (basophil response); >35% decrease (neutrophil response) |
| Ziboh et al., 2004 25 | Mild asthma, adults (randomized) | BO (2g GLA/d) | USA | 24 | na | 12mo | Neutrophil leukotriene production (ex vivo); Peak flow | >20% decrease (p<0.05); no effect |
Several studies have also investigated the effects of gamma-linolenic acid when given in combination with botanical or marine omega-3 (n-3) enriched PUFA supplements. Enteral diets enriched with marine oils containing omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (i.e. eicosapentaenoic acid [EPA, 20:5n-3] and docosahexaenoic acid [DHA, 22:6n-3]) and gamma-linolenic acid have been shown to reduce cytokine production and neutrophil recruitment into the lung resulting in fewer days on ventilation and shorter stays in the intensive care unit in patients with acute lung injury or acute respiratory distress syndrome 27. Importantly, these dietary combinations of gamma-linolenic acid and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids were also shown to reduce both morbidity and mortality of critically ill patients 27. However, as with the studies of gamma-linolenic acid alone, the results combining gamma-linolenic acid and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids have not been reproducible. Other clinical studies, such as the OMEGA trial, did not show a benefit of these gamma-linolenic acid/omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid combinations on patient outcomes 28.
Supplementation strategies providing gamma-linolenic acid together with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (i.e. EPA and DHA) have also been utilized in patients with atopic asthma 29 and have been shown to block ex vivo synthesis of leukotrienes from whole blood and isolated neutrophils. Importantly when provided as an emulsion, daily consumption of these combinations was associated with an improved quality of life in asthma patients and a decreased reliance on rescue medication 29. These results compared favorably with quality of life scores obtained in mild asthmatics treated with montelukast or zafirlukast 30.
Alternatively, botanical oil combinations (e.g. borage and echium oils) containing gamma-linolenic acid, the n-3 18C-PUFAs, alpha-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3n-3) and stearidonic acid (SDA, 18:4n-3), have been shown to reduce leukotriene generation and forced expiratory volume in mild asthmatics 31, improve glucose tolerance in insulin-resistant monkeys 32 and reduce total and LDL “bad” cholesterol levels in patients with diabetes and metabolic syndrome 33. These botanical oil studies, however, have yet to be replicated in larger human clinical trials.
Together, these data indicate that the outcomes of clinical studies utilizing gamma-linolenic acid supplementation, alone or in combination with other fatty acid-based supplements, while promising are highly inconsistent. More recent studies suggest that there are important metabolic and genetic factors within the human host that significantly impact the study of gamma-linolenic acid or gamma-linolenic acid/omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids combinations and reveal that a “one size fits all” model of supplementation may not be appropriate. Furthermore, these studies suggest that it may be necessary to better understand key metabolic and genetic issues regarding gamma-linolenic acid metabolism before gamma-linolenic acid-enriched supplements can be effectively used to address human disease.
Black currant benefits
In addition to its anecdotal use in traditional herbal medicine, modern laboratories have demonstrated the potent anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antimicrobial effects of black currant constituents on a myriad of disease states. Various reports also describe the beneficial functions of black currant for human health, vasodilatation 34, eyestrain 35 and as an antivirus agent 36. These properties are mainly due to the anthocyanins (specifically delphinidin-3-O-glucoside, delphinidin-3-O-rutinoside, cyanidin-3-O-glucoside and cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside), flavonols, phenolic acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids in black currant. In previous studies, researchers found immunostimulating effects of a polysaccharide, which called cassis polysaccharide, derived from black currant 37 and its antitumor activity and ability to induce tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) production in a mouse study 37. Scientists also found that cassis polysaccharide has an effect on macrophage activation in in vitro (test tube) experiments 37.
Anthocyanins are effective antioxidants 38 but they have also been proposed to have other biological activities that are independent of their antioxidative capacities and produce health benefits. Examples range from inhibition of cancer cell growth in vitro 39, induction of insulin production in isolated pancreatic cells 40, reduction of starch digestion through inhibition of a-glucosidase activity 41, suppression of inflammatory responses 42, slow down patient’s glaucoma progression 43, as well as protection against age-related declines in cognitive behavior and neuronal dysfunction in the central nervous system 44.
- The health benefits of blackcurrants. Food Funct. 2012 Aug;3(8):795-809. doi: 10.1039/c2fo30058c. Epub 2012 Jun 6. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22673662/[↩]
- United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service. National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference Release 28. https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/search/list[↩]
- Gamma-linolenic acid, Dihommo-gamma linolenic, Eicosanoids and Inflammatory Processes. Eur J Pharmacol. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2017 Aug 15. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4975646/[↩]
- Calcium, gamma-linolenic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid supplementation in senile osteoporosis. Kruger MC, Coetzer H, de Winter R, Gericke G, van Papendorp DH. Aging (Milano). 1998 Oct; 10(5):385-94. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9932142/[↩]
- A defect in Δ6 and Δ5 desaturases may be a factor in the initiation and progression of insulin resistance, the metabolic syndrome and ischemic heart disease in South Asians. Das UN. Lipids Health Dis. 2010 Nov 9; 9():130. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2987992/[↩]
- Antineoplastic effects of gamma linolenic Acid on hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines. Itoh S, Taketomi A, Harimoto N, Tsujita E, Rikimaru T, Shirabe K, Shimada M, Maehara Y. J Clin Biochem Nutr. 2010 Jul; 47(1):81-90. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2901768/[↩]
- Cytotoxicity of unsaturated fatty acids in fresh human tumor explants: concentration thresholds and implications for clinical efficacy. Scheim DE. Lipids Health Dis. 2009 Dec 15; 8():54. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2801488[↩]
- Dietary gamma-linolenate attenuates tumor growth in a rodent model of prostatic adenocarcinoma via suppression of elevated generation of PGE(2) and 5S-HETE. Pham H, Vang K, Ziboh VA. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2006 Apr; 74(4):271-82. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16567086/[↩]
- Effects of eicosapentaenoic and gamma-linolenic acid on lung permeability and alveolar macrophage eicosanoid synthesis in endotoxic rats. Mancuso P, Whelan J, DeMichele SJ, Snider CC, Guszcza JA, Claycombe KJ, Smith GT, Gregory TJ, Karlstad MD. Crit Care Med. 1997 Mar; 25(3):523-32. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9118672/[↩]
- Enteral nutrition with eicosapentaenoic acid, γ-linolenic acid and antioxidants in the early treatment of sepsis: results from a multicenter, prospective, randomized, double-blinded, controlled study: the INTERSEPT study. Pontes-Arruda A, Martins LF, de Lima SM, Isola AM, Toledo D, Rezende E, Maia M, Magnan GB, Investigating Nutritional Therapy with EPA, GLA and Antioxidants Role in Sepsis Treatment (INTERSEPT) Study Group. Crit Care. 2011 Jun 9; 15(3):R144. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3219016/[↩]
- Andreassi M, et al. Efficacy of gamma-linolenic acid in the treatment of patients with atopic dermatitis. J Int Med Res. 1997;25:266–274. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9364289[↩]
- Bamford JTM, Ray S, Musekiwa A, van Gool C, Humphreys R, Ernst E. Oral evening primrose oil and borage oil for eczema. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2013, Issue 4. Art. No.: CD004416. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004416.pub2. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD004416.pub2/full[↩][↩]
- Foster RH, et al. Borage oil in the treatment of atopic dermatitis. Nutrition. 2010;26:708–718. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20579590[↩]
- Morse PF, et al. Meta-analysis of placebo-controlled studies of the efficacy of Epogam in the treatment of atopic eczema. Relationship between plasma essential fatty acid changes and clinical response. Br J Dermatol. 1989;121:75–90. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2667620[↩]
- Van Gool CJAW, et al. Oral essential fatty acid supplementation in atopic dermatitis—a meta-analysis of placebo-controlled trials. Br J Dermatol. 2004;150:728–740. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15099370[↩]
- Morse NL, Clough PM. A meta-analysis of randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trials of Efamol®; evening primrose oil in atopic eczema. Where do we go from here in light of more recent discoveries? Cur Pharmaceut Biotech. 2006;7:503–524. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17168667[↩]
- Fiocchi A, et al. The efficacy and safety of γ-linolenic acid in the treatment of infantile atopic dermatitis. J Int Med Res. 1994;22:24–32. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7910570[↩]
- van Gool CJAW, et al. γ-Linolenic acid supplementation for prophylaxis of atopic dermatitis—a randomized controlled trial in infants at high familial risk. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;77:943–951. http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/77/4/943.long[↩]
- Kitz RJ, et al. Impact of early dietary gamma-linolenic acid supplementation on atopic eczema in infancy. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2006;17:112–117. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16618360[↩]
- Kawamura A, et al. Dietary supplementation of gamma-linolenic acid improves skin parameters in subjects with dry skin and mild atopic dermatitis. J Oleo Sci. 2011;60:597–607. https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jos/60/12/60_12_597/_pdf/-char/en[↩]
- Simon D, et al. Gamma-linolenic acid levels correlate with clinical efficacy of evening primrose oil in patients with atopic dermatitis. Adv Therapy. 2014;31:180–188. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3930832/[↩]
- Cameron M, Gagnier JJ, Chrubasik S. Herbal therapy for treating rheumatoid arthritis. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2011, Issue 2. Art. No.: CD002948. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD002948.pub2. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD002948.pub2/full[↩][↩]
- Macfarlane G, et al. Evidence for the efficacy of complementary and alternative medicines in the management of rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic review. Rheumatol. 2011;50:1672–1683. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21652584[↩][↩]
- Arm J, et al. Impact of botanical oils on polyunsaturated fatty acid metabolism and leukotriene generation in mild asthmatics. Lipids Health Dis. 2013;12:141. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3851449/[↩]
- Ziboh VA, et al. Suppression of leukotriene B(4) generation by ex-vivo neutrophils isolated from asthma patients on dietary supplementation with gammalinolenic acid-containing borage oil: Possible implication in asthma. Clin Devel Immunol. 2004;11:13–21. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2275406/[↩]
- Sergeant S, Rahbar E, Chilton FH. Gamma-linolenic acid, Dihommo-gamma linolenic, Eicosanoids and Inflammatory Processes. European journal of pharmacology. 2016;785:77-86. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2016.04.020. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4975646/[↩]
- Singer P, et al. Benefit of an enteral diet enriched with eicosapentaenoic acid and gamma-linolenic acid in ventilated patients with acute lung injury. Crit Care Med. 2006;34:1033–1038. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16484911[↩][↩]
- Rice TW, et al. Enteral omega-3 fatty acid, γ-linolenic acid, and antioxidant supplementation in acute lung injury. JAMA. 2011;306:1574–1581. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3770348/[↩]
- Surette ME, et al. The impact of a medical food containing gammalinolenic and eicosapentaenoic acids on asthma management and the quality of life of adult asthma patients. Cur Medl Res Opin. 2008;24:559–567. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18194593[↩][↩]
- Riccioni G, et al. Effect of the two different leukotriene receptor antagonists, montelukast and zafirlukast, on ouality of life: A 12-week randomized study. Allergy Asthma Proc. 2004;25:445–448. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15709456[↩]
- Kazani S, et al. LTC4 synthase polymorphism modifies efficacy of botanical seed oil combination in asthma. SpringerPlus. 2014;3:1–8. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4236308/[↩]
- Kavanagh K, et al. Stearidonic and γ-linolenic acids in echium oil improves glucose disposal in insulin resistant monkeys. Prostaglandin Leukotr Essent Fatty Acid. 2013;89:39–45. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4086843/[↩]
- Lee TC, et al. The impact of polyunsaturated fatty acid-based dietary supplements on disease biomarkers in a metabolic syndrome/diabetes population. Lipids Health Dis. 2014;13:196. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4290816/[↩]
- Endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation induced by black currant concentrate in rat thoracic aorta. Nakamura Y, Matsumoto H, Todoki K. Jpn J Pharmacol. 2002 May; 89(1):29-35. https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jjp/89/1/89_1_29/_pdf/-char/en[↩]
- Differential effects of black currant anthocyanins on diffuser- or negative lens-induced ocular elongation in chicks. Iida H, Nakamura Y, Matsumoto H, Kawahata K, Koga J, Katsumi O. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2013 Jul-Aug; 29(6):604-9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23413995/[↩]
- Anti-influenza virus activity of crude extract of Ribes nigrum L. Knox YM, Suzutani T, Yosida I, Azuma M. Phytother Res. 2003 Feb; 17(2):120-2. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12601672/[↩]
- Immunostimulatory effects of a polysaccharide-rich substance with antitumor activity isolated from black currant (Ribes nigrum L.). Takata R, Yamamoto R, Yanai T, Konno T, Okubo T. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 2005 Nov; 69(11):2042-50. https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/bbb/69/11/69_11_2042/_pdf/-char/en[↩][↩][↩]
- Stinzing FC, Carle R. Functional properties of anthocyanins and betalins in plants, food, and in human nutrition. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2004;15:19–38.[↩]
- Human tumor cell growth inhibition by nontoxic anthocyanidins, the pigments in fruits and vegetables. Zhang Y, Vareed SK, Nair MG. Life Sci. 2005 Feb 11; 76(13):1465-72.[↩]
- Insulin secretion by bioactive anthocyanins and anthocyanidins present in fruits. Jayaprakasam B, Vareed SK, Olson LK, Nair MG. J Agric Food Chem. 2005 Jan 12; 53(1):28-31.[↩]
- alpha-Glucosidase inhibitory action of natural acylated anthocyanins. 1. Survey of natural pigments with potent inhibitory activity. Matsui T, Ueda T, Oki T, Sugita K, Terahara N, Matsumoto K. J Agric Food Chem. 2001 Apr; 49(4):1948-51.[↩]
- Tart cherry anthocyanins suppress inflammation-induced pain behavior in rat. Tall JM, Seeram NP, Zhao C, Nair MG, Meyer RA, Raja SN. Behav Brain Res. 2004 Aug 12; 153(1):181-8.[↩]
- Yoshida K, Ohguro I, Ohguro H. Black Currant Anthocyanins Normalized Abnormal Levels of Serum Concentrations of Endothelin-1 in Patients with Glaucoma. Journal of Ocular Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 2013;29(5):480-487. doi:10.1089/jop.2012.0198. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3669603/[↩]
- Reversals of age-related declines in neuronal signal transduction, cognitive, and motor behavioral deficits with blueberry, spinach, or strawberry dietary supplementation. Joseph JA, Shukitt-Hale B, Denisova NA, Bielinski D, Martin A, McEwen JJ, Bickford PC. J Neurosci. 1999 Sep 15; 19(18):8114-21.[↩]
