Body building

Body building focuses on building muscles for strength and to look good. However, bodybuilders size and shape depend largely on their genetic factors, which is why it is difficult for a naturally thin person to put on muscles. The human body can change to a limited extent through weight training and increased food intake. Gaining or regaining weight can be just as difficult as losing weight. When done in a smart, healthful way, many of the same basic principles apply to both gaining and losing weight.

Lean muscle mass naturally diminishes with age. Your body fat percentage will increase over time if you don’t do anything to replace the lean muscle you lose over time. Strength training (see below) can help you preserve and enhance your muscle mass at any age.

Lifting weights or doing physical activities such as push-ups, pull-ups and squats 2 or 3 days a week will help you build strong muscles. Only intense strength training, along with certain genes, can build large muscles. Like other kinds of physical activity, muscle-strengthening activities will help improve your health and also may help you control your weight by increasing the amount of energy-burning muscle.

It is important to consult with your doctor to make sure that your weight-gaining tactics are healthy and appropriate for you.

How to build muscles faster?

Muscle building also called muscle hypertrophy is defined as an increase in skeletal muscle size is the process of increasing muscle size, density, and shape, typically through weightlifting and resistance training ¹, ², ³, ⁴, ⁵, ⁶, ⁷. Research has shown that in order to increase muscle mass, stress must be put on the body, leading to increased hormone release, and increased flow of nutrients into the muscle, and with rest, muscles will grow ⁸, ⁹, ¹⁰, ¹¹, ¹², ¹³, ¹⁴, ¹⁵.

To get a bigger muscle, you can:

• Use a reps-and-rest cycle. Aim for 6–12 reps per set, with 60–90 seconds of rest between sets.
• Lift heavy weight. Lifting too light a weight won’t lead to the same definition gains.
• Vary your exercises. This will help you work different muscle fibers.
• Progressively increase the resistance over time.
• Muscle growth is typically experienced after 6 to 7 weeks of resistance training ¹⁶. Muscle growth is more common in fast-twitch than in slow-twitch muscles. Type 2A fibers exhibit the greatest growth, more so than type 2B and type 1 fibers.
• Eat a healthy diet rich in macronutrients, especially protein ¹⁷, ¹⁸.

However, gaining lean body weight is a slow process that takes months and years rather than days and weeks. Most muscle tissue is made up of different kinds of proteins. When you lift heavy loads, your muscles tear and your body experiences metabolic stress ¹⁹. In response to this, your body tells the proteins to increase, and the muscles slowly grow ¹⁹. Then, to keep growing your muscles, you have to keep increasing weightlifting volumes over time ¹⁹. A beginner new to weightlifting who uses full body workouts three times a week can expect to build 1/2 to 1 pound per week or 6 to 12 pounds of muscle in 3 months. An experienced lifter can build 1/4 to 1/2 pound per week or 3 to 6 pounds of muscle in 3 months.

There are several ways you can train to make your muscles bigger. Most hypertrophy training plans focus on lifting heavier loads for a smaller number of reps and sets. However, different bodies might respond differently to the same programs, so there is usually some trial and error when finding your optimal training plan.

According to the National Academy of Sports Medicine (NASM), muscle building training can sometimes result in overuse injuries like tendonitis or tendinosis or low-grade muscle tears, especially when you don’t properly rest and recover ¹⁹. Lifters who try to lift too much or have poor form can get more serious acute injuries like ruptured discs, ligament tears, fractures, or high-grade muscle tears ¹⁹.

Most of these risks can be avoided if you follow a structured program from a qualified trainer who knows your capabilities ¹⁹. In fact, muscle building is a more advanced form of strength training. According to the Optimum Performance Training Model (OPT Model), a 5-phased fitness training system developed by Dr. Mike Clark to guide National Academy of Sports Medicine (NASM) personal trainers to help their clients improve their performance, training, and recovery ²⁰. The Optimum Performance Training Model (OPT Model) is based on human movement science principles, including biomechanics, kinesiology, and exercise physiology. It combines a variety of exercises, including:

• Flexibility training
• Cardiorespiratory training
• Core training
• Balance training
• Plyometric training
• Speed, agility, and quickness training
• Resistance training
• Stabilization endurance training

The Optimum Performance Training Model (OPT Model) progresses people through 5 phases ²⁰:

1. Phase 1 Stabilization and Endurance. Stabilization and Endurance is the foundation of the entire OPT Model. Before you start building training, you should have good stability, muscle endurance, and optimal movement patterns to prevent injury. During this first phase, you will perform 12 to 20 repetitions per set, your movement speed will slow down, and the intensity/weight used for exercises reduced to promote muscular endurance and ensure correct form and technique. Phase 1 is a great starting point for those who are new to training and is an opportune time to do questionnaires and fitness assessments to determine goals, establish baselines for training, and identify any movement compensations, respectively. And, for more experienced clients, Stabilization and Endurance phase is a great to include in their program to add different stresses and challenges to their body and will also become a critical phase to cycle back through between training periods in the other phases. Reinforcing correct movements in this phase can lead to strength gains — even with lighter weights — because of enhanced joint and postural control, and coordination. When progressing in this phase, a primary focus is on increasing proprioceptive demand (controlled instability) of the exercises, rather than just increasing the amount of weight you use.
2. Phase 2 Strength Endurance. The Strength Endurance Phase gives you the chance to acclimate to heavier weights and higher training intensities. Workouts in the Strength Endurance Phase use superset techniques in which you will follow a more traditional strength exercise such as a bench press with an exercise that has similar biomechanical motions but requires more stabilization to perform (like a stability ball push-up). The Strength Endurance Phase is the logical next step from Phase 1 for increasing the intensity of your workouts. Sets increase to 2 to 4, repetitions will stay high (8-12 per exercise / 16-24 per superset). The supersets combined with decreased rest periods will elevate the challenge considerably leading not only to noticeable improvements in your strength and endurance but more significant your calorie expenditure too.
3. Phase 3 Muscular Development/Hypertrophy. Phase 3 of the OPT Model is all about building strength and developing muscle. Muscular Development/Hypertrophy training is ideal for the adaptation of maximal muscle growth, by focusing on higher volumes of work at moderate-to-high intensity levels and with minimal rest periods between exercise sets. These training variables contribute to cellular changes that result in an overall increase in muscle size. If caloric intake is appropriate, the increased intensities and training volumes, and decreased rest periods experienced in this phase also make it great for those who aspire to change their body composition through fat/weight loss. Typically, workouts in this phase involve performing 3 to 6 sets of 6 to 12 reps per resistance exercise at intensities ranging from 75 to 85% of your one-rep max (the heaviest weight you can lift for just one go or for a single lift) or 1RM. You’ll typically be lifting at 85 to 100% of your one-rep max (1RM), so knowing your limits ensures your workouts remain challenging yet safe. And, don’t make the mistake of thinking your max on one lift applies to another – your bench press one-rep max (1RM) might be worlds apart from your back squat. Go here for a free online One Rep Max (1RM) calculator (https://www.nasm.org/resources/one-rep-max-calculator). You can also use the Standard One-Rep Max (1RM) table below. The “standard” one-rep max (1RM) values can differ based on age, gender, weight, training history, and other factors. Below is a generalized range for an average adult male, assuming he’s in decent shape but not necessarily an elite athlete.
4. Phase 4 Maximal Strength. Phase 4 is geared towards enhancing your ability to produce maximal muscular force. Accomplishing this requires maximal efforts and lifting near-max/maximal loads during resistance training—ranging anywhere from 85 to 100% of your one-rep max for 1 to 5 repetitions. While similar to Muscular Development training in scope, developing maximal strength largely depends on neuromuscular adaptations resulting from consistently and progressively overloading muscles with higher intensities (loads). Because you will be lifting very heavy weights (near-max/maximal loads) in this phase, longer rest periods between exercise sets and higher volumes of training are usually required to optimize strength gains.
5. Phase 5 Power. The 5th phase of the OPT Model focuses on using high force and high velocity exercises to increase power. One method to improve power is to perform supersets with contrasting loads. Like the supersets outlined and used in Phase 2 of the OPT Model, supersets in 5th phase will consist of two biomechanically similar exercises performed back-to-back. The first exercise should challenge near-max/maximal strength for 1 to 5 reps, and the second exercise should involve and challenge moving relatively low loads as fast and explosively as possible for 8 to 10 reps. The rationale for this sequence is to activate and tap into as many muscle fibers as possible with the maximal lift, while utilizing explosive exercises directly after to improve how quickly and efficiently those muscle fibers contract. Keeping with the upper body exercise theme used previously, an example Phase 5 superset is performing a bench press followed by a medicine ball chest pass.

Table 1. Standard One-Rep Maximum (1RM)

Experience Level	Deadlift (kg)	Bench press kg)	Squat
Beginner	60-100	40-70	50-85
Intermediate	100-140	70-100	85-125
Advanced	140-180	100-130>	125-170
Elite	180	130	170

Footnote: Always consult with a fitness professional to set realistic and safe goals.

[Source ²¹ ]

The Optimum Performance Training Model (OPT Model) should be thought of as a staircase, guiding you through different physical adaptation levels. This journey will involve going up and down the stairs, stopping at different steps, and moving to various heights, depending on your goals, needs, and abilities.

Table 2. Optimum Performance Training Model (OPT Model)

Summary of the Optimum Performance Training Model (OPT Model)
Level	Phase	Primary Adaptations	Primary Methods of Progression
Stabilization	1. Stabilization Endurance Training	Mobility and flexibility Core and joint stabilization Postural alignment and control Muscular and aerobic endurance	Progress exercises proprioceptively (controlled, yet unstable) Increase the complexity of exercises once basic movement patterns have been established.
Strength	2. Strength Endurance Training	Core strength and joint stabilization Muscular endurance and prime mover strength	Decrease rest periods. Increase the volume of exercises (reps + sets). Increase the load (weight) of resistance training exercises. Increase the complexity of resistance training exercises.
	3. Hypertrophy Training (Muscular Development Training)	Core strength Muscular strength and hypertrophy	Increase the volume of exercises. Increase the load of resistance training exercises. Increase the complexity of resistance training exercises.
	4. Maximal Strength training	Core strength Maximal muscular strength	Increase the load of resistance training exercises. Increase the sets of resistance training exercises.
Power	5. Power Training	Core strength Maximal muscular strength Rate of force production	Increase the load of resistance training exercises. Increase the speed (repetition tempo) of exercises. Increase the sets of exercises.

[Source ²⁰ ]

To build muscle, you can:

• Train consistently: Train 2 or 3 times per week to give your muscles time to recover. Commit to a regular training routine and don’t take weeks off.
  Make your workouts short and intense rather than long and leisurely.
• Eat a protein-rich diet: Eat lean protein sources like chicken, fish, lean meat, and plant-based protein powder. The recommended protein intake is 0.8 to 1 gram per kilogram of body weight per day ²². For strength training athletes adequate protein intake should range between 1.2 and 1.7 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight per day or 0.5 to 0.8 grams per pound of body weight ²³, ²⁴, ²⁵, ²⁶. Try to eat protein within 30 minutes of a workout.
• Get enough rest: Your body releases growth hormones during sleep and rest, which helps muscles grow and repair.
• Do resistance training: Use weights, resistance bands, or your own body weight to build muscle. You can try:
  • Compound exercises that work multiple muscle groups, like squats and bench presses
  • Body weight exercises like pushups, pullups, lunges, and planks
• Progress your strength training: Increase the amount of weight you lift.
• Find a qualified training partner: A gym instructor or personal trainer can help you do exercises correctly and reduce your risk of injury.
• Mix in cardio: Short, sharp cardio can help burn fat.

You can expect to see noticeable muscle growth after 8 to 12 weeks, but it depends on many factors, including: nutrition, intensity, frequency, age, genetics, and sex.

The science behind muscle building

It is hypothesized that there are 3 three main mechanisms involved in the process of inducing muscle hypertrophy to resistance exercise ²⁷, ²⁸, ²⁹, ³⁰. These are:

1. Muscular Damage
2. Metabolic Stress
3. Muscular tension.

Muscle fibers

Muscle fibers are single muscle cells that help your body perform a specific physical function ³¹. Like muscles themselves, not all muscle fibers are the same. There are 7 primary types of skeletal muscle fibers, including fast-twitch and slow-twitch. They each have different functions that are important to understand when it comes to movement and exercise programming.

Most experts agree that the distribution of muscle fiber types depend on the primary function of the muscle in question, as well as:

• Your Activity level. Your activity level and the types of activities that you do can affect how much you have of each muscle fiber type. For example, endurance athletes usually have a higher proportion of slow-twitch muscle fibers. And strength or power athletes usually have a higher amount of fast-twitch muscle fibers. But the exact proportion of each muscle fiber type can range from 15 to 85% of one type or the other, and the distribution also highly depends on the muscle. There’s also a theory that people who genetically have a higher percentage of slow-twitch fibers might be drawn to endurance activities, and people with more fast-twitch are drawn to power-based activities ³².
• Your Age. Muscle fiber type is also heavily influenced by the aging process. The percentage of type 2 fast-twitch muscle fibers tend to decline with age. People usually reach peak muscle mass by the age of 30, which means they have a higher percentage of type 2 fast-twitch muscle fibers. Women experience a rapid decline in muscle mass post-menopause. Men have a more gradual decline in muscle mass during and after their 40s. That means that as most people age, they have a higher number of slow-twitch type 1 muscle fibers. However, humans still need to have some muscle strength as they age, which is why most experts recommend that older people continue to do strength training exercises ³³.
• Your Genetics.

Table 3. Muscle fiber types

Characteristic	Slow-Twitch Type 1	Fast-Twitch Type 2A	Fast-Twitch Type 2X or 2B
Activities	Marathons, distance running, swimming, cycling, power walking, endurance training	Powerlifting, sprinting, jumping, strength and agility training	Powerlifting, sprinting, jumping, strength and agility training
Muscle Fiber Size	Small	Large	Large
Force Production	Low	High	Very high
Resistance to Fatigue	Slow	Quick	Very quick
Contraction Speed	Slow	Quick	Very quick
Mitochondria	High	Medium	Low
Capillaries	High	Medium	Low
Myoglobin	High	Medium	Low
ATPase Level	Low	Medium	High
Oxidative Capacity	High	Medium	Low

Footnotes: *ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the body’s energy currency. ATP provides energy for your muscle cell to contract. Type 2 muscle fibers have more readily available ATP. Type 1 fibers rely on aerobic respiration (oxygen delivery) to produce ATP in the muscle cells.

** Oxidative capacity refers to how much oxygen a gram of muscle uses in an hour.

[Source ³⁴ ]

Slow-Twitch muscle fibers

Slow-twitch muscle fibers are the muscle cells responsible for endurance movements ³⁴, ³⁵. For example, the story of the tortoise and the hare. Slow-twitch or type 1 muscle fibers are like the tortoise. They don’t produce a lot of power, but they’re also resistant to fatigue and can contract for a long time ³⁶. Slow-twitch type 1 muscle fibers help with a lot of your daily movements, like walking, cleaning your house, or sitting upright in a chair.

Type 1 muscle fibers get most of their energy (ATP) from aerobic respiration, meaning they need oxygen to function. The oxygen makes the muscle fibers look red, which is why slow-twitch fibers are sometimes called red fibers. Type 1 muscle fibers have a much better blood supply and ability to receive oxygen than type 2 fibers. They also have a high concentration of mitochondria which is the powerhouse of a cell where aerobic respiration takes place.

Because slow-twitch muscle fibers use oxygen to produce energy, they are more resistant to fatigue. Type 1 muscle fibers are responsible for endurance activities such as distance running, swimming, cycling, hiking, low-to-moderate intensity dancing, and walking.

Fast-Twitch muscle fibers

Fast-twitch muscle fibers are the muscle cells responsible for short, powerful movements ³⁴, ³⁵. Going back to the story between the tortoise and hare, your fast-twitch or type 2 fibers are like the hare. They can produce a lot more force and power for a short time, but they get fatigued fast ³⁷, ³⁸.

Type 2 muscle fibers are subdivided into type 2X and 2A ³⁴.

Type 2X muscle fibers produce force that’s much greater than type 1 muscle fibers ³⁴. However, they use anaerobic (without oxygen) metabolic pathways to get their energy (ATP) ³⁴. That means they receive less blood flow and oxygen and can only produce force for short periods of time and are highly fatigable ³⁹.

Type 2A muscle fibers are like a hybrid of type 1 and type 2X muscle fibers ³⁴. Type 2A muscle fibers have elements of both type 1 and type 2X muscle fiber types. For example, type 2A muscle fibers use both aerobic and anaerobic pathways and produce a medium amount of power for a medium amount of time.

Most people have high numbers of type 2A muscle fibers that produce a medium amount of power and have medium fatigue resistance ³⁴. Type 2A muscle fibers tend to be influenced more by training because they operate as fast-twitch fibers in untrained people and slow-twitch fibers in endurance-trained people. Rather than specifically trying to target type 2A muscle fibers with training, train for your sport or activity and allow these muscle fibers to adjust automatically ³⁵.

When your body moves, it will use slow-twitch type 1 muscle fibers first. Then, if type 1 muscle fibers can’t produce enough force, the body will use fast-twitch type 2X and 2A muscle fibers to get more power.

So, if your fitness goals involve strength and power, you’ll want to focus on training type 2 muscle fibers. Technically, any resistance training will train both type 1and type 2 muscle fibers, but training with heavier loads at least 70% of one-repetition maximum (1RM) or lighter weights with explosive tempos are the best ways to activate and train type 2 fibers. These muscle fibers also tend to achieve muscle growth easily, which can be important for bodybuilders.

Note that 1 repetition maximum (1RM) is the heaviest weight a person can lift once while using proper form and performing a full range of motion. 1RM (1 repetition maximum) is a reliable way to measure your overall muscular strength and is often used by strength and conditioning coaches. 1RM is used to determine the appropriate load and intensity for resistance training. For example, if you want to do 5 back squats, you can calculate the weight to use by taking 85–90% of your 1RM.

Strength- and power-based activities typically use more type 2X and some 2A muscle fibers. These activities require a large amount of force to be produced at once with little need for fatigue resistance. Some activities that use type 2 muscle fibers include ³⁴:

• Sprints. A sprint workout is a training routine that involves alternating short, high-intensity bursts of exercise with rest or low-intensity exercise. Sprinting is an anaerobic exercise that involves running at top speed for a short time. Your body can’t bring in enough oxygen quickly enough to provide energy for the movement. This produces lactic acid, which builds up in your blood and limits how long you can sprint. Sprinting helps you run faster and for longer by increasing your lactate threshold. Sprinting also builds muscle in your legs and stimulates growth throughout your body.
• Olympic weightlifting. Olympic weightlifting is an Olympic sport where athletes attempt to lift a barbell loaded with weight plates in a single lift. The two lifts in Olympic weightlifting are the snatch and the clean and jerk
• Powerlifting. Powerlifting focuses on lifting the most weight possible in three lifts: bench press, squat and deadlift.
• Plyometrics. Plyometrics are a type of exercise that uses explosive movements to build muscle power and improve physical performance. Plyometric exercises can include jumping, running, kicking, and throwing. Some examples of plyometric exercises include:
  • Box jumps: Jump up and onto a box while lifting your arms for momentum, then jump back down
  • Squat thrusters: Start in a high plank position, then jump your feet forward into a squat
  • Jumping lunges: Stand with your feet shoulder-width apart, then jump while bringing one leg in front of you and the other behind you
  • Squat jumps: Start standing on your toes, then flex your hips and jump up

To stimulate fast-twitch type 2 muscle fibers, lift higher loads (more than 70% one-repetition maximum [1RM]) at lower repetitions (1 to 12) or use lighter weight with explosive tempos. Some examples of fast-twitch stimulating exercises include ³⁴:

• Heavy barbell squats. Heavy barbell squats are a compound exercise that involves holding a weighted barbell and performing a squat. To do a barbell squat stand with your feet shoulder-width apart, unrack the barbell, and hold it on your upper back. Keep your chest up and back straight, then hinge your hips and knees to lower your body into a squat position.
• Heavy barbell bench presses. A heavy barbell bench press is a weight training exercise that involves using a barbell to press a heavy weight upwards while lying on a bench. Remember to always have a spotter to help you lift safely.
• Medicine ball slams. A medicine ball slam is a full-body exercise that involves lifting a weighted ball overhead and slamming it into the ground. To do a medicine ball slam:
  1. Stand with your feet shoulder-width apart.
  2. Hold the ball in both hands at your torso.
  3. Squat down slightly.
  4. Inhale and press through your heels to stand up on the balls of your feet.
  5. Extend your knees and hips as you rise to lift the ball overhead.
  6. Slam the ball down between your feet with as much force as you can.
  7. Catch the ball on the rebound or pick it up for repetition.
• Chest pass. A chest pass is a passing technique in basketball and netball where a player holds the ball at chest level and throws it to another player, usually without the ball touching the floor.
• Box jumps. A box jump is a type of exercise that involves jumping from the ground onto an elevated surface, such as a box. Box jumps are a high-impact exercise that can help improve your lower body strength and speed, as well as your vertical jump range.

Fast-twitch fibers can also recruit slow-twitch fibers: endurance training at high-intensity intervals can be effective in improving aerobic power ⁴⁰, ⁴¹.

Tapering during training programs (reducing volume and intensity), can also improve the strength and power of type 2A fibers without decreasing type 1 performance ⁴².

One study investigated muscle fiber changes in recreational runners training for a marathon ⁴². After 13 weeks of increasing mileage and a three-week tapering cycle, not only did the functions of type 1 and type 2A fibers improve, but type 2A continued to improve significantly during the tapering cycle ⁴².

Muscular Damage

Exercise training can result in localized damage to muscle tissue, which under certain conditions is theorized to generate a hypertrophic response ²⁷, ⁴³. When you perform an activity that is harder in some way than your current ability, that activity produces stress within one or more body systems that consequently requires these systems to adapt. It does this in many ways, from chemical to structural alterations, but the underlying principle remains the same ⁴⁴, ⁴⁵, ⁴⁶, ⁴⁴, ⁴³, ⁴⁷.

Stress causes an adaptation within a particular body system, which the body then responds to by reorganising and repairing itself to be better prepared for next time ⁴⁸. In order to drive further adaptation, higher stress must be applied to signal to the system that an adaptation is required. The adaptation of the body system is specific to the stress applied, in other words, you adapt in a way that is directly related to the stress experienced ⁴⁸. For example, calluses form on your hands as an adaptation to picking things up. They develop on your hands and not on your face because that is the area where the stress was applied. Gradual and planned increases in this cycle of stress, recovery and adaptation are what scientists refer to as progressive overload and it forms the basic principle of almost all human performance-based training around the world ⁴⁸. The goal of building muscle is no different.

When you stress muscle tissue appropriately, either through the application of load, volume and time under tension, this creates a certain level of structural and systemic damage within the muscular tissue itself. As a result of that damage, the muscular system reorganises and repairs that tissue to a level above what previously existed. Muscular damage, often as a side effect, creates soreness and inflammation within the tissue and for years it was assumed that more soreness equated to more growth. Thankfully, scientists now understand that not to be the case, despite this misconception still being repeated in many places. That being said, while the level of soreness does not directly correlate to more muscular growth, the basic concept of stress, recovery and adaptation of the muscle tissue is still a factor that must be considered in the process. For years, muscular damage was the be-all and end-all of training, but we now understand several other important factors that contribute to the process of inducing muscle hypertrophy – metabolic stress and muscle tension.

Metabolic Stress

Metabolic stress is the concept of eliciting an influx of metabolic products into the muscle through manipulating reps, sets and rest time in an exercise. More commonly referred to as the “burn” or “pump”, this concept has existed for many decades in bodybuilding styles of training but has only more recently been researched and understood on a scientific level. The hypothesis that currently exists reports that increased metabolic activity in the muscle tissue (specifically metabolite accumulation) improves motor unit recruitment and drives the release of anabolic hormones accelerating muscle hypertrophy ⁴⁹, ⁴⁶, ⁵⁰, ⁵¹, ⁵², ⁵³, ⁵⁴.

This concept was established through numerous studies where various set and rep range protocols were manipulated at the results closely studied. It was established that the primary driver of metabolic stress is:

• Higher volume exercises of between 10 to 12 repetitions.
• Performed at 70-80% 1RM (1 repetition maximum) for multiple sets. 1 repetition maximum (1RM) is the heaviest weight a person can lift once while using proper form and performing a full range of motion. 1RM (1 repetition maximum) is a reliable way to measure your overall muscular strength and is often used by strength and conditioning coaches. 1RM is used to determine the appropriate load and intensity for resistance training. For example, if you want to do 5 back squats, you can calculate the weight to use by taking 85–90% of your 1RM.
• With only 30 seconds to 1 minute of rest between each set.

While this might seem simple on the surface, how can this be applied on a practical level to your training? The fundamental problem with the metabolic stress model (apart from turning each workout into a hellish nightmare) is that it is very difficult to practically apply during large compound lifts, which should always form the foundation of any good program. You simply cannot perform 6-8 sets of 12 reps with only 1 minute of rest with any meaningful amount of weight (certainly not a true 80% of a 1RM which is advocated in several studies), at the very least not without compromising the form and safety of the trainee. This means that this type of training typically limits itself to isolation-based exercises that neither utilize as much muscle mass nor provide the systemic stress that compound lifts do. This reduces their overall ability to make any substantial change to muscle mass. The danger with this is when programs are designed based purely on this principle and forget to factor in the other primary factors of muscle hypertrophy, you are leaving a huge amount of untapped potential in your training, especially for beginners as well as leaving yourself open to possible injury, overtraining and chronic soreness ⁴⁸.

Muscle Tension

The previously mentioned mechanisms of muscle hypertrophy cannot happen without the third being present. Increases in muscular tension are the only reliable and constant factor across all demographics that must be in place for hypertrophy to occur. Mechanically induced tension produced both by force generation and stretch is considered essential to muscle growth, and the combination of these stimuli appears to have a pronounced additive effect ⁵⁵, ⁵⁶, ³⁰. More specifically, muscular tension is the contraction of the sarcomeres within the muscle tissue to produce force. Yet it should be noted that hypertrophy from muscular tension can be produced in the absence of both significant metabolic stress and muscular damage. How much muscular tension and under what conditions are where the debate lies ⁴⁸.

Theoretically, muscular tension is produced whenever a muscle is under contraction, but in the gym, you typically obtain muscle tension under two conditions.

1. When heavy weight is lifted for lower repetitions, or
2. When lighter weights are lifted for higher repetitions but taken very close to failure.

These two events are similar in a sense that the repetitions involuntarily slow down the further through the set you move and both events can, and will, create fatigue forcing you to exert more force and effort into finishing the set ⁴⁸. However, there are some less obvious differences between the two in terms of their performance.

A heavy set of say 5 at 90% 1RM (1 repetition maximum), requires more motor unit recruitment from the start of the set, due to the outright force production necessary to lift the weight in the first place. The more force you must produce, the more motor units must be recruited (particularly the larger type 2 fibres). In a lighter, but still taxing 12RM set (a repetition maximum of 12, which is the most weight you can lift and perform 12 repetitions of an exercise with proper form), the first 6 reps are submaximal, meaning that they do not require close to the maximal effort to move. However, as the set continues, you must then call into recruitment of more motor units (type 2) to complete the set. A moderate repetition scheme, like 8 to 12 repetitions per set with 60% to 80% of 1RM, is best for optimizing hypertrophic gains ⁵⁷. Some research suggests that alternating between blocks of 10-12 reps at 70% and blocks of higher intensity, like 3-5 reps with 90% 1RM, can achieve similar muscular gains.

The question is then placed as to what method do you choose? Both can have significant results in the production of muscle hypertrophy and can generally be safely used by the most individuals. There are several things such as time, specific goals, and access to equipment, that all play into this. You want to choose the method that give you the most bang for your buck in the most efficient way possible.

Firstly, heavy sets feel heavy because they ARE heavy. They also give the added benefit of calling into contraction a higher number of motor units in order to move the weight. Secondly, you know that hypertrophy occurs as a result of more motor units being used, but also the ability to produce maximal force increases in those muscle fibers when they are called into contraction. In other words, the adaptation occurs in both the size of the muscle but also in its ability to produce force.

In contrast, lighter weights taken close to failure may feel difficult, and in some cases, will produce a good hypertrophic response. However, this method pales in comparison to the increase in overall force production of heavier weights completed for lower reps. The problem here is that due to the limited amount of adaptation towards more force production, the weight quickly becomes the bottleneck to continued progress. If you are getting bigger, but are not able to go up in weight, how do you continue to drive progress without now changing the rep ranges away from those best suited to continue to build muscle?

The point being made here is that a lot of time beginners looking to gain muscle will jump immediately into a highly complicated multi-factor program that is backed by “science” only to spend the next year on a hamster wheel making little to no progress. Getting the foundations right in any training regime is fundamental before you start debating the ins and outs or finer details, and anyone who has been training for any amount of time generally arrives at the same conclusion eventually.

The reality is that all you need at the beginning is a simple program that focuses on large compound lifts which utilize and progressively overload as much muscle mass as possible over the full range of motion.

Many people have wasted years in the gym only to find out that the answer was simple, not complexity. As your training progresses and goals become more clearly defined, then complexity can be added, but don’t waste precious time by trying to get complicated before you have to.

What builds muscle the most?

The best way to build muscle is to lift heavy weights and have proper nutrition. Weight training is the best way to keep the muscle mass you have and even increase your muscle mass. You’ll also need to consume more protein than your body removes to build muscle. Getting enough sleep is also important for muscle growth because your muscles recover and grow while you’re asleep. Try to get 8 to 10 hours of sleep per night. The National Sleep Foundation, an organization of doctors and researchers who specialize in sleep, recommends that adults (between the ages of 18 and 64) achieve between 7 to 9 hours of sleep per night ⁵⁸. If you’re older than 65, you may need a little less: seven to eight hours is recommended.

For both men and women, sleeping less than 6 hours per night could result in higher belly fat levels. A lack of sleep can elevate the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), responsible for stimulating the metabolism to produce the energy for physical activity. Insufficient sleep could boost the hormones cortisol and epinephrine (adrenaline), which help release free fatty acids that you use for energy. When there is low physical activity, the free fatty acids can deposit in the adipose (fat) tissue of your abdominal region resulting in additional belly fat ⁵⁹.

Another way that insufficient sleep could lead to weight gain is through the production of specific hormones. Grehlin is a hormone responsible for stimulating hunger. Leptin performs the opposite function and tells the body when it has had enough food intake. Poor sleep is associated with leptin levels decrease and ghrelin rises, potentially resulting in an increase in appetite and over-eating ⁶⁰. In addition, staying awake late into the evening allows you more opportunities for mindless snacking on calorically-dense food. Furthermore, the added fatigue from lack of sleep may also lead you to skipping out on exercising, another setback for reaching your weight loss goals.

Insufficient sleep could also impair your body’s ability to properly recover from a challenging strength training workout designed to promote muscle growth. Growth hormone (GH), an anabolic hormone responsible for repairing muscle tissue damaged during exercise, is produced during stage 3 of Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) sleep; achieving optimal sleep could be helping muscles grow ⁶¹.

While sleeping, your body will experience multiple cycles of sleep, each of which can last between 70 to 120 minutes; there are three stages of Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) sleep and a fourth stage of Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep and over the course of one night, your body goes through the sleep stages every 90 minutes or so ⁶².

The Sleep Stages ⁶³:

• Stage 1. Stage 1 of the sleep cycle is the lightest phase of sleep and generally lasts about seven minutes. The sleeper is somewhat alert and can be woken up easily. During this stage, your heartbeat and breathing slow down while your muscles begin to relax. Your brain produces alpha and theta waves.
• Stage 2. In Stage 2, your brain creates brief bursts of electrical activity known as “sleep spindles” that create a distinct sawtooth pattern on recordings of brain activity. Eventually, the waves continue to slow down. Stage 2 is still considered a light phase of sleep, but the sleeper is less likely to be awakened. Heart rate and breathing slow down even more, and the body temperature drops. Stage 2 lasts around 25 minutes.
• Stage 3. Stage 3 represents your body falling into a deep sleep, where slow wave sleep occurs. Your brain produces slower delta waves, and there’s no eye movement or muscle activity. As your brain produces even more delta waves, you enter an important restorative sleep stage from which it’s difficult to be awakened. This phase of deep sleep is what helps you feel refreshed in the morning. It’s also the phase in which your body repairs muscle and tissue, encourages growth and development, and improves immune function.
• Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep. About 90 minutes after falling asleep, your body enters REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep and is named so for the way your eyes quickly move back and forth behind your eyelids. REM sleep is thought to play a role in central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) development in infants, which might explain why infants need more REM sleep than adults. REM sleep pattern is characterized by dreaming, since your brain is very active during this stage. Physically, your body experiences faster and irregular breathing, increased heart rate, and increased blood pressure; however, your arm and leg muscles become temporarily paralyzed, stopping you from acting out your dreams. REM sleep increases with each new sleep cycle, starting at about ten minutes during the first cycle and lasting up to an hour in the final cycle. Stage 4 is the last stage before the cycle repeats. This sleep stage is critical for learning, memory, daytime concentration, and your mood.

While all sleep stages are important, Stage 3 and REM sleep have unique benefits. One to two hours of Stage 3 deep sleep per night will keep the average adult feeling restored and healthy ⁶³. If you’re regularly waking up tired, it could be that you’re not spending enough time in that deep sleep phase. Meanwhile, REM sleep helps your brain consolidate new information and maintain your mood – both critical for daily life ⁶³. Talk to your doctor if you feel you are not getting the restful sleep that you need.

Strength training (muscle-strengthening exercise)

Strength training or muscle-strengthening exercise is a key component of overall health and fitness for everyone. Strength training or muscle-strengthening exercise can reduce your body fat, increase lean muscle mass and burn calories more efficiently. Strength training will make you stronger, leaner and healthier.

Strength training involves lifting free weights, using stationary weight machines, resistance bands, or your own body weight such as push-ups, pull-ups and squats to make your muscles stronger. Strength training classes that incorporate some or all of the above activities will improve your balance and prevent falls.

Strength training may help you:

• build and maintain strong muscles as you get older
• continue to perform activities of daily living, such as carrying groceries or moving furniture
• keep your bones strong, which may help prevent osteoporosis and fractures.

As you incorporate strength training exercises into your fitness routine, you may notice improvement in your strength over time. As your muscle mass increases, you’ll likely be able to lift weight more easily and for longer periods of time. If you keep it up, you can continue to increase your strength, even if you’re not in shape when you begin.

Strength-training tips:

• Aim for at least 2 days per week of strengthen-training activities.
• Try to perform each exercise 8 to 12 times. If that’s too hard, the weight you are lifting is too heavy. If it’s too easy, your weight is too light.
• Try to exercise all the major muscle groups. These groups include the muscles of your legs, hips, chest, back, abdomen, shoulders, and arms.
• Don’t work the same muscles 2 days in a row. Your muscles need time to recover.

If you are just starting out, using a weightlifting machine may be safer than dumbbells. As you get fit, you may want to add free-weight exercises with dumbbells.

You do not need a weight bench or large dumbbells to do strength training at home. You can use a pair of hand weights to do bicep curls. You can also use your own body weight: for example, push-ups, pull-ups and squats.

Proper form is very important when lifting weights. You may hurt yourself if you don’t lift weights properly. You may want to schedule a session with a certified fitness professional to learn which exercises to do and how to do them safely.

If you decide to buy a home gym, check how much weight it can support to make sure it is safe for you.

How to many calories I need?

You can calculate your basal metabolic rate (BMR) or resting metabolic rate (RMR) using the Mifflin-St Jeor equation ⁶⁴, which is considered more accurate than the Harris-Benedict equation, especially for lean people. According to the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics Evidence Analysis Library (EAL), the Mifflin-St. Jeor equation accurately predicted resting metabolic rate (RMR) using actual body weight within +/- 10% of measured RMR in 70% of obese individuals ⁶⁵. Of the remaining 30%, 9% were overestimations and 21% were underestimations. The individual error range was a maximum overestimate of 15% to a maximum underestimate of 20%” ⁶⁶. While the Harris-Benedict and WHO equations are often used in clinical practice with reasonable accuracy, results have been mixed regarding their applications to individuals who are overweight or obese ⁶⁷.

The Mifflin-St Jeor formula for calculating your basal metabolic rate (BMR) or resting metabolic rate (RMR):

• Males Basal metabolic rate [BMR] (kcal/day) = (10 X weight in kilograms) + (6.25 X height in centimeters) – (5 X age in years) + 5 (kcal/day)
• Females Basal metabolic rate [BMR] (kcal/day) = (10 X weight in kilograms) + (6.25 X height in centimeters) – (5 X age in years) – 161 (kcal/day)

You can also use the free online Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) calculator here: https://www.nasm.org/resources/calorie-calculator

Or the Body Weight Planner (https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/weight-management/body-weight-planner).

The Body Weight Planner allows you to make personalized calorie and physical activity plans to reach a goal weight within a specific time period and to maintain it afterwards.

The Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) calculator factor in your activity levels, overall goals, and calorie usage to help you craft a weight-loss plan.

Once you have found your basal metabolic rate (BMR), multiply your BMR by your Physical Activity Levels to provide a baseline daily caloric level for weight maintenance:

• Sedentary (light physical activity associated with typical day-to-day life) = 1
• Low Active (walking about 1.5 to 3 miles per day at 3 to 4 miles per hour, in addition to the light physical activity associated with typical day-to-day life), For males = 1.11 and females = 1.20
• Active (walking more than 3 miles per day at 3 to 4 miles per hour, in addition to light physical activity associated with typical day-to-day life: 60 minutes of at least moderate intensity physical activity). For males = 1.25 and females = 1.27
• Very Active (walking more than 7.5 miles per day at 3 to 4 miles per hour, in addition to light physical activity associated with typical day-to-day life: 60 minutes of at least moderate to vigorous intensity physical activity). For males = 1.48 and females = 1.45

Your Total Daily Energy Expenditure (TDEE) gives you the estimated number of calories you need to maintain your current weight based on your activity level.

To find your Total Daily Energy Expenditure (TDEE) multiply your Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) by your Physical Activity Levels

For example:

• Sedentary (little to no exercise): BMR x 1
• Lightly active (walking about 1.5 to 3 miles per day at 3 to 4 miles per hour, in addition to the light physical activity associated with typical day-to-day life): BMR x For males = 1.11 and females = 1.20
• Moderately active (moderate exercise/sports 3-5 days/week): BMR x 1.55
• Very active (walking more than 7.5 miles per day at 3 to 4 miles per hour, in addition to light physical activity associated with typical day-to-day life: 60 minutes of at least moderate to vigorous intensity physical activity): BMR x For males = 1.48 and females = 1.45
• Super active (very hard exercise & physical job or 2x training): BMR x 1.9

You can increase your basal metabolic rate (BMR) by:

• Exercising more, especially interval training
• Weight training to build muscle mass
• Eating fat-burning foods
• Getting enough sleep

After calculating your basal metabolic rate (BMR) or resting metabolic rate (RMR), your RMR should be multiplied by an appropriate physical activity factor to provide your baseline daily caloric level for weight maintenance. Once your baseline caloric level is known, your recommended calorie intake should be reduced to facilitate your weight loss.

If you want to lose weight, subtract 500 to 1000 calories from your Total Daily Energy Expenditure (TDEE) to get a daily intake goal. For weight gain, add extra calories. Reducing your calorie intake by 500 calories is a common strategy to yield a weight loss of approximately one pound per week, although reductions of up to 750 calories per day are sometimes used ⁶⁸.

Another approach is to reduce your current caloric intake by 30% ⁶⁸. Diets that reduce caloric intake relative to energy expenditure result in weight loss, regardless of macronutrient composition ⁶⁸.

Here’s how to estimate how long it will take to reach your goal:

Jessie’s current weight is 150 lbs. She wants to lose 20 lbs.

• 150lbs – 20lbs = 130lbs.
• 20lbs loss at 2lbs/week = 10 weeks.
• It will take Jessie about 10 week to lose the weight.

Remember, these are general guidelines only. It’s crucial to monitor your progress and adjust as necessary. Consulting with a nutritionist or health professional is always recommended for personalized advice.

What happens when your calories are too low?

Consuming calories below your body’s needs for an extended period can lead to various physiological and psychological consequences. Here’s what can happen when your caloric intake is too low:

• Slower metabolism: Your body might slow down its metabolic rate as a defense mechanism to conserve energy. This can make weight loss harder over time and weight regain more likely once normal eating resumes.
• Nutrient deficiencies: Low calorie intake can lead to inadequate intake of essential vitamins and minerals. Over time, this can result in conditions like anemia, osteoporosis, and impaired immune function.
• Loss of muscle mass: Your body might start breaking down muscle tissue for energy, especially if protein intake is inadequate. This can further slow down metabolism and lead to weakness.
• Hormonal changes: Reduced calorie intake can affect hormone levels, leading to disruptions in menstrual cycles for women, reduced bone density, and other hormonal imbalances.
• Reduced energy and fatigue: You might feel constantly tired or find it difficult to concentrate.
• Mood changes: Low caloric intake can influence mood. This can result in irritability, depression, or anxiety.
• Impaired Immune Function: Your body might become more susceptible to infections due to a weakened immune system.
• Hair and skin problems: You might experience hair loss, dry skin, or brittle nails due to inadequate nutrient intake.
• Digestive problems: Constipation or other digestive issues can occur as a result of reduced fiber and fluid intake.
• Fertility issues: Low calorie and nutrient intake can lead to fertility problems in both men and women.
• Cardiovascular problems: Chronic low calorie intake can affect heart health, leading to low blood pressure, irregular heart rhythms, or other cardiovascular issues.
• Increased risk of gallstones: Rapid weight loss from very low-calorie diets can lead to the development of gallstones.

What should bodybuilders eat?

Most of body builders can meet all of their nutritional needs from food. Tips for making healthy eating choices:

• Eat a variety of foods. Eat a variety of foods from each of the five food groups daily. Healthy choices include fruits, vegetables, whole grains, protein foods, and fat-free or low-fat dairy. Foods are grouped together because they provide similar amounts of key nutrients. For example, key nutrients of the milk, yoghurt, cheese and alternatives group include calcium and protein, while the fruit group is a good source of vitamins, minerals, antioxidants. As a bonus, choosing a variety of foods will help to make your meals interesting, so that you don’t get bored with your diet.
• Eat fruit instead of drinking it. Eating fruit is linked to a reduced risk of several health conditions, but fruit juices are more likely to spike blood sugar levels.
• Add healthy fats. Healthy fats like monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats can help lower cholesterol and protect your heart. You can find healthy fats in foods like olive oil, nuts, avocados, and some types of fish.
• Drink water. Sipping water throughout the day can help keep you full and hydrated. Sometimes thirst is mistaken for hunger.
• Reduce added sugar. Too much added sugar in your diet can contribute to weight gain, obesity, type 2 diabetes, and heart disease.
• Chew your food well. Chewing your food well can help you make healthier food choices.
• Sit at the table to eat. Sitting at the table to eat can help you focus on your food and internal cues for hunger or fullness.

Some bodybuilders and athletes use dietary supplements to try to improve their strength, muscle mass, and energy. However, many of these types of products contain harmful ingredients. Also, for some substances, including glutamine, choline, methoxyisoflavone, quercetin, zinc/magnesium aspartate, nitric oxide, and L-arginine, there’s no clear evidence that they improve athletic performance.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are your body’s fuel. Carbohydrates also play roles in gut health and immune function ⁶⁹. For healthy children and adults, carbohydrates should make up approximately 45 to 65% of energy intake based on the minimum required glucose for brain function ⁶⁹. However, some carbohydrates are more nutritious than others.

Foods that contain the most carbohydrates include:

• Fruit.
• Vegetables, especially potatoes and corn.
• Legumes, including dried beans, peas and lentils.
• Grains.
• Bread.
• Breakfast cereal.
• Rice, pasta and noodles.
• Low-fat milk and yoghurt.

These foods are rich in vitamins, minerals and antioxidants and are generally low in fat. This makes them well suited to a healthy eating plan. Some are excellent sources of dietary fibre, including wholegrain varieties, legumes, fruit and vegetables.

Foods with lots of added sugar like soft drinks, alcohol and sweets are another source of carbohydrates, but these contribute extra kilojoules with few vitamins and minerals.

Optimal carbohydrate intake should consist of high fiber, nutrient-dense whole grains, fruits, vegetables and legumes, without the added sugar ⁷⁰.

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends that carbohydrates should make up 45 to 65% of one’s daily calories ⁷¹. To calculate how many grams of carbohydrates you need, multiply your daily calorie requirements by 0.45 and 0.65 to obtain calories from carbohydrates.

• (A) 0.45 x 2000 = 900 calories
• (B) 0.65 x 2000 = 1300 calories

Divide answers in step 1 by 4 since there are 4 calories per 1 gram of carbohydrate

• (A) 900/4 = 225g of carbohydrate
• (B) 1300/4 = 325g of carbohydrate

Carbohydrates are eaten in the form of simple carbohydrates, like monosaccharides and disaccharides, or complex carbohydrates, like oligosaccharides and polysaccharides ⁶⁹. Monosaccharides are the basic building blocks of all carbohydrates and include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Glucose is the simplest type of carbohydrates and is the major source of energy for your body’s cells ⁶⁹. Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in animals and is present in the liver and muscle, but there is little to none in the diet.

Disaccharides contain two sugar units and include lactose, sucrose, and maltose. Lactose is a carbohydrate found in milk, and sucrose is basic table sugar.

Oligosaccharides consist of 3 to 10 sugar units and include raffinose and stachyose, which are in legumes.

Polysaccharides include greater than ten sugar units and consist of starches, glycogen, and fibers, like pectin and cellulose. Starches like amylose are in grains, starchy vegetables, and legumes and consist of glucose monomers.

Fibers are plant polysaccharides like pectin and cellulose found in whole grains, fruits, vegetables, and legumes but are not digestible by humans. However, fibers play a major role in gut health and function and can be digested by microbiota (microorganisms) in the large intestine ⁷². The recommended fiber intake is greater than 38 g for men and 25 g for women, which is the intake that research has observed to lower the risk of coronary artery disease (a heart disease that affects the main blood vessels that supply blood to the heart).

Does eating more carbohydrates cause body fat?

If carbohydrates control body fat, then you would expect that low-carb diets are less “fattening” than higher carbohydrate diets. This means that low carb diets should add less body fat to people than higher carbohydrate diets do. This is true in the most basic sense in that when you overconsume calories (Calorie IN more than Calorie OUT). You do store at least some of the excess calories as body fat. But studies don’t support that view that low-carb diets are less “fattening” than higher carbohydrate diets. It turns out that excess carbohydrates are relatively difficult to store as body fat, at least compared to fats.

In one study where people were overfed carbohydrates and fats, fats were stored ~20% more efficiently than carbs ⁷³. In another study where people were overfed carbohydrates, there was a very minimal conversion of carbohydrates to stored body fat, indicating that it is very inefficient to turn carbohydrates into body fat ⁷⁴.

Furthermore, low-carb diets are not necessary for weight loss, nor are they alone sufficient for weight loss. Carbs don’t necessarily control body fat after all. Over the last several decades there have been dozens of scientific studies comparing low-carb diets to other diets to examine their efficacy ⁷⁵. There are plenty of studies whose results do not support the idea that carbohydrates per se control body fat. For example, in one study of 4,451 people, there was a lower risk of being obese or overweight if you consumed a moderate to high carbohydrate diet when compared to a lower carbohydrate diet ⁷⁶. That study found consuming a low-carbohydrate (approximately <47% energy) diet is associated with greater likelihood of being overweight or obese among healthy, free-living adults ⁷⁶.

Another study found that there was no real association between BMI and daily carbohydrate intake, suggesting that if carbohydrates did control body fat, it would be a relatively minor effect ⁷⁷.

Ultimately, science tells us that carbohydrates are not more fattening than fats; in fact, it would make more sense to eat a few too many carbohydrates than a few too many fats. Indeed, this is what you see when you follow people who over-consume carbohydrates versus fats – they tend to gain a little less body fat ⁷⁸.

Are low-carb diets are better for weight loss than other diets?

The majority of the clinical trials that have examined whether low-carb diets are better than other diets for fat loss show that low-carb diets result in the same amount of weight loss as other diets ⁷⁹.

When you tightly control people’s diets and measure virtually every part of their metabolism, it is apparent that low-carb diets are not better for weight loss ⁸⁰. They might be slightly worse for body fat loss than low-fat diets. This holds true even if you go to very low levels of carbohydrate intake ⁸¹.

Furthermore, when people adopt a low-carb diet in the real world and over more extended periods, they still see very similar results for weight-loss.

The primary findings from these studies have been:

1. Low-carb diets are not necessary for weight loss. Virtually all types of diets can and do result in weight loss when there is a negative energy balance (i.e. an energy deficit).
2. From a body fat mass perspective, low-carb diets may result in inferior fat mass reductions in shorter term diets.
3. Adherence to low-carb diets is no better or worse compared to most other forms of dieting.
4. Low-carb diets often result in more immediate water weight loss and glycogen depletion than moderate-carb diets.

In conclusion, although the idea that carbohydrates control body fat has been popular in the media, there is little scientific evidence to support it. Unless you have extreme levels of carbohydrate intake (Calorie IN more than Calorie OUT), there is no real link between carbohydrates and body fat. From scientific studies, it turns out that carbohydrates are less fattening than dietary fat. When followed in the real-world, low-carb diets can be useful for weight loss, but they are not any more effective than other low calorie diets.

Very low-carb diets can often result in a state called ketosis. This occurs when dietary carbohydrates are low enough, or fat is high enough, such that the body begins producing ketones at a level that allows them to accumulate.

It is often touted that being in a state of ketosis increases fat loss, but there is no good evidence to suggest that is true. In fact, one recent study showed that fat loss is similar, if not inferior, in a state of ketosis ⁸². If you choose to adopt a low-carb diet, ketosis may be a result of that process, but should not be the primary focus.

Furthermore, there is some evidence that if someone is an athlete engaging in higher intensity, higher volume exercise, ketogenic diets should be avoided as they can impair performance ⁸³, ⁸⁴.

Very low carbohydrate diets can come with unwanted and potentially dangerous side effects when followed for extended periods. For example, cardiac dysfunction, impairment of physical activity, hair loss, nausea, digestive issues, and lipid abnormalities are all common side effects.

How many carbs should you eat a day to lose weight?

For otherwise healthy individuals with no underlying medical conditions, there does not appear to be a truly minimal amount of carbohydrates that need to be consumed daily.

Your daily recommendations for carb intake are based on two primary criteria:

1. Your total daily calorie requirements (your basal metabolic rate [BMR] or resting metabolic rate [RMR])
2. Your intensity or volume of physical activity.

Higher total daily calorie needs come with higher recommendations for total daily carb intake, while lower total daily calorie needs come with lower recommendations. Furthermore, as your body relies heavily on carbohydrate intake for moderate to higher intensity physical activity, carb recommendations will increase as your total volume and intensity of activity increase.

Your total daily calorie intake can be estimated using the Mifflin-St Jeor formula above. However, there are also online tools that can be used that can help you determine how many calories you should consume daily. Such as the free online Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) calculator here: https://www.nasm.org/resources/calorie-calculator

Or the Body Weight Planner (https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/weight-management/body-weight-planner).

The Body Weight Planner allows you to make personalized calorie and physical activity plans to reach a goal weight within a specific time period and to maintain it afterwards.

After that, the number of carbs grams per unit of body weight can be estimated based on current guidelines from the American College of Sports Medicine and the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. These recommendations are generalized as follows ⁸⁵:

• Light Activity: 3-5 g carb/kg/day
• Moderate Activity (1 hour of moderate exercise): 5-7 g carb/kg/day
• High Activity (1-3 hours of intense, endurance exercise): 6-10 g carb/kg/day
• Very High (4-5 hours of intense, endurance exercise): 8-12 g carb/kg/day

It is often recommended that more moderate carbohydrate intakes (1 to 3 g/kg/day) are consumed even in the context of weight loss.

Your muscles need carbs to fuel and recover from your workouts. At least 40% of your total daily calories should come from good carbs. Eat carbs 60 to 90 minutes prior to your workout, and then eat a combo of carbs and protein (2:1 ratio) within an hour after you finish.

Although many nutrition labels count all carbohydrates toward calorie intake, the truth is not all carbohydrates provide a meaningful number of calories as the human body does not digest and extract energy from all forms of carbohydrates.

In most situations, dietary fiber is considered a non-digestible carb and does not contribute to the total carbohydrate intake. As such, in many cases, fiber is subtracted from total carb intake. The grams of fiber is often subtracted from the total carbs grams to yield a total of usable carbs grams. For example, a food label may list 34 g total carbohydrate consisting of 4 g fiber and 6 g added sugar. By subtracting dietary fiber (4 grams of fiber) from total carbohydrates (34 grams) = 30 grams of usable carbs.

Protein

Protein is an essential nutrient that you need throughout life. Proteins are the building blocks of life. Protein is in every cell in your body. The basic structure of protein is a chain of amino acids ⁸⁶. A protein is a chain of amino acids bound to one another via peptide bonds (chemical bond linking amino acids together to form a protein). When someone eats protein, it is broken down into its amino acids.

Your body needs protein to make, maintain, repair and renew bones, muscles, cartilage, hormones, enzymes, neurotransmitters, vitamins, blood and skin cells ⁶⁹, ⁸⁷, ⁸⁸. Proteins provide energy (calories) if necessary, the others are fat and carbohydrates. Proteins do everything from fighting infections to helping cells divide. Protein is also important for growth and development in children, teens, and pregnant women.

Excess or deficiency of protein can lead to disease, resulting in nervous system defects, metabolic problems, organ failure, and even death ⁸⁶. Clinical symptoms of inadequate intake of essential amino acids may include depression, anxiety, insomnia, fatigue, weakness, and growth stunting in the young. These symptoms are mostly caused by a lack of protein synthesis in the body because of the lack of essential amino acids ⁸⁸. Kwashiorkor and marasmus are examples of more severe clinical disorders caused by malnutrition and inadequate intake of essential amino acids as a macronutrient ⁸⁸.

High protein diets can promote weight loss via increased insulin sensitivity, fatty acid oxidation, appetite suppression, and feeling full. However, caution is necessary for people with diabetes who have gout because protein can elevate niacin levels, which may exacerbate gout-related symptoms.

The protein in your food is broken down into parts called amino acids during digestion. Your body needs a number of amino acids in large enough amounts to maintain good health. While there are hundreds of amino acids, humans use only 20 amino acids ⁸⁶, ⁸⁸.

Amino acids are classified into three groups ⁸⁶:

1. Essential amino acids. Essential amino acids cannot be made by your body, and must be supplied by food. Essential amino acids do not need to be eaten at every meal. The balance over the whole day is more important. There are 9 essential amino acids:
   • Histidine
   • Isoleucine
   • Leucine
   • Lysine
   • Methionine
   • Phenylalanine
   • Threonine
   • Tryptophan
   • Valine
2. Nonessential amino acids. Nonessential amino acids are made by your body from essential amino acids or in the normal breakdown of proteins. There are 5 amino acids that are termed non-essential amino acids:
   • Alanine
   • Asparagine
   • Aspartic acid
   • Glutamic acid
   • Serine
3. Conditionally Essential amino acids. Conditionally Essential amino acids are needed in times of illness, stress, starvation or inborn errors of metabolism. A healthy body can make conditionally essential amino acids under normal physiologic conditions. There are 6 amino acids that are called conditionally essential amino acids:
   • Arginine
   • Cysteine
   • Glutamine
   • Glycine
   • Proline
   • Tyrosine

You get protein (amino acids) in your diet from animal and plant-based foods such as meat, fish, eggs, dairy products, nuts, and certain grains, beans, peas, and lentils ⁸⁹. Proteins from meat and other animal products are complete proteins. This means they supply all of the amino acids your body can’t make on its own. Most plant proteins are incomplete. So you should eat different types of plant proteins every day to get all nine essential amino acids your body needs. For example, pairing protein sources like rice and beans, hummus, pita bread, or oatmeal topped with almond butter. Regarding volume, it may be necessary to eat more plant-based foods to get a similar amount of protein and amino acid profile provided by animal-based proteins ⁹⁰.

• Animal protein – protein-containing foods from animals are meat, chicken, fish, eggs and dairy products. Meat and poultry foods should be lean or low-fat, like 93% lean ground beef, pork loin, and skinless chicken breasts. Choose seafood options that are higher in healthy fatty acids called omega-3s fatty acid and lower in methylmercury, such as salmon, anchovies, and trout. And stay away from processed meats or artificial (fake) meat.
• Vegetable protein – protein-containing foods from plants include tofu, nuts, seeds, lentils, dried beans and peas, and soy milk.
  Good protein choices include:
  • Soy protein
  • Beans
  • Nuts
  • Fish
  • Lean chicken with no skin
  • Lean beef
  • Pork
  • Salmon
  • Anchovies
  • Trout
  • Low-fat dairy products

It is important to get enough dietary protein. You need to eat protein every day, because your body doesn’t store it the way it stores fats or carbohydrates. Furthermore, protein foods provide nutrients important for maintaining your health and body. How much protein you need depends on your age, sex, height, weight, health, and level of physical activity. The amount can also depend on whether or not you are pregnant or breastfeeding.

The recommended protein intake is 0.8 to 1 gram per kilogram of body weight per day ²². For strength training athletes adequate protein intake should range between 1.2 and 1.7 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight per day or 0.5 to 0.8 grams per pound of body weight ²³, ²⁴, ²⁵, ²⁶.

For healthy children ages 1 to 3 approximately 5 to 20% and children ages 4 to 18 approximately 10 to 30% of daily energy intake should come from protein. The daily recommended intake of protein for healthy adults is 10% to 35% of your daily energy intake based on the adequate amount needed for nitrogen equilibrium ⁷⁰. One gram of protein supplies 4 calories. Therefore, if you consume 2,000 calories per day, this would work out to be between 200 to 700 calories of protein per day, you could eat 100 grams of protein, or 400 calories from protein, which would supply 20% of your total daily calories.

The recommended daily intakes (RDIs) can also be calculated by your body weight. The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics recommends that the average individual should consume 0.8 grams of protein per kilogram or 0.35 grams per pound of body weight per day for general health. So a person that weighs 75 kg (165 pounds) should consume an average of 60 grams of protein per day. Since there are approximately four calories per gram of protein, 60 grams of protein would result in the intake of 240 calories.

How much protein do I need?

How much protein you need depends on your age, sex, height, weight, health, and level of physical activity. The amount can also depend on whether or not you are pregnant or breastfeeding. The recommended protein intake is 0.8 to 1 gram per kilogram of body weight per day ²². For strength training athletes adequate protein intake should range between 1.2 and 1.7 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight per day or 0.5 to 0.8 grams per pound of body weight ²³, ²⁴, ²⁵, ²⁶.

How to calculate your daily protein needs:

Convert body weight in pounds to kilograms (round to the nearest 10th).
 Multiply weight in kilograms by the range that best fits your activity levels.

Let’s look at an example:

• Convert pounds into kilograms 150lbs / 2.2 = 68.2kg

The recommended protein intake is 0.8 to 1 gram per kilogram of body weight per day

• 68.2kg (0.8g grams of protein per kilogram) = 54.6g
• 68.2kg (1g grams of protein per kilogram) = 68.2g

For strength training athletes adequate protein intake should range between 1.2 and 1.7 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight per day.

• 68.2kg (1.2g grams of protein per kilogram) = 81.8g
• 68.2kg (1.7g grams of protein per kilogram) = 115.9g

Here are some practical protein equivalents in common foods. One ounce (30 grams) of most protein-rich foods contains 7 grams of protein. An ounce (30 grams) equals:

• 1 oz (30 g) of meat fish or poultry
• 1 large egg has six grams of protein
• ¼ cup (60 milliliters) tofu
• ½ cup (65 grams) cooked beans or lentils
• 1 cup of dry beans has about 16 grams of protein
• 1 cup of milk has eight grams of protein
• 1 cup of soy milk has about seven grams of protein

Low fat dairy is also a good source of protein. An eight ounce container of yogurt has about 11 grams of protein

Most Americans eat enough protein in their diet but need to select leaner varieties of meat and poultry. Americans may also need to increase the variety of protein foods selected and choose meats less often. However, if you are vegetarian or vegan, the advice to eat meat, poultry, and seafood does not apply to you. Vegetarian protein options include beans, peas, lentils, nuts, seeds, and soy products.

What counts as an ounce-equivalent in the protein foods group?

The following examples count as 1 ounce-equivalent from the protein foods group ⁸⁷:

• 1 ounce of meat, poultry, or fish
• ¼ cup cooked beans
• 1 egg
• 1 tablespoon of peanut butter
• ½ ounce of nuts or seeds
• ¼ cup (about 2 ounces) of tofu
• 1 ounce tempeh, cooked

The table below lists amounts that count as 1 ounce-equivalent in the protein foods group towards your daily recommended amount.

Table 4. Daily protein foods general recommendations by age

Daily Protein Recommendation* in Ounce-Equivalents
Toddlers	12 to 23 months	2 ounce-equivalent
Children	2-3  yrs 4-8 yrs	2 to 4  ounce-equivalent 3 to  5½ ounce-equivalent
Girls	9-13 yrs 14-18 yrs	4 to 6  ounce-equivalent 5 to 6½ ounce-equivalent
Boys	9-13 yrs 14-18 yrs	5 to 6½ ounce-equivalent 5½ to 7 ounce-equivalent
Women	19-30 yrs 31-59  yrs 60+ yrs	5 to 6½ ounce-equivalent 5 to 6 ounce-equivalent 5 to 6 ounce-equivalent
Men	19-30 yrs 31-59  yrs 60+ yrs	6½ to 7 ounce-equivalent 6 to 7 ounce-equivalent 5½ to 6½ ounce-equivalent

How much protein do you need for optimal muscle maintenance?

The recommended protein intake is 0.8 to 1 gram per kilogram of body weight per day ²². For strength training athletes adequate protein intake should range between 1.2 and 1.7 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight per day or 0.5 to 0.8 grams per pound of body weight ²³, ²⁴, ²⁵, ²⁶, ⁹¹, ⁹². That’s because your skeletal muscle is made up of 75 percent water and 20 percent protein, with the remainder from other materials including fat, glycogen, inorganic salts, and minerals ⁹³. Given the protein content of your skeletal muscle, it is not surprising resistance trained athletes emphasize the importance of dietary protein in their meal plans ¹². This is also reflected in the scientific literature with significant attention given to protein focused nutritional interventions to facilitate resistance training induced adaptations ⁹⁴, including manipulation of total daily dietary protein intake ⁹⁵, protein dosage per meal ⁹⁶, ⁹⁷, ⁹⁸, protein quality ⁹⁹ and protein distribution ¹⁰⁰.

Higher-protein diets have been shown to ¹⁷, ¹⁸, ⁹¹, ⁹²:

1. Promote gains in muscle mass, especially when paired with resistance training;
2. Spare muscle mass loss during caloric restriction; and
3. Reduce the natural loss of muscle mass that accompanies aging.

Protein quality is also important to the gain and maintenance of muscle mass ¹⁰¹. Protein quality is a function of protein digestibility, amino acid content, and the resulting amino acid availability to support metabolic function ¹⁰¹. Whey protein is one of the highest-quality proteins given its amino acid content (high essential, branched-chain, and leucine amino acid content) and rapid digestibility. Consumption of whey protein has a strong ability to stimulate muscle protein synthesis ¹⁰¹. In fact, whey protein has been found to stimulate muscle protein synthesis to a greater degree than other proteins such as casein and soy.

A recent meta-analysis suggested dietary protein supplementation enhances resistance training induced gains in muscle mass and strength, at least when dietary protein intake is suboptimal (<1.6 g per kg body weight daily) ¹⁰², resistance training alone provides a far greater stimulus than whey protein supplementation ⁹⁷.

How to calculate your daily protein needs:

Convert body weight in pounds to kilograms (round to the nearest 10th).
 Multiply weight in kilograms by the range that best fits your activity levels.

Let’s look at an example:

• Convert pounds into kilograms 150lbs / 2.2 = 68.2kg

The recommended protein intake is 0.8 to 1 gram per kilogram of body weight per day

• 68.2kg (0.8g grams of protein per kilogram) = 54.6g
• 68.2kg (1g grams of protein per kilogram) = 68.2g

For strength training athletes adequate protein intake should range between 1.2 and 1.7 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight per day.

• 68.2kg (1.2g grams of protein per kilogram) = 81.8g
• 68.2kg (1.7g grams of protein per kilogram) = 115.9g

Muscle mass is built when the net protein balance is positive: that is muscle protein synthesis exceeds muscle protein breakdown. Research shows muscle protein turnover is the greatest after working out. Additionally, it has been shown that muscle mass increases over time when resistance exercise (i.e. weight lifting, body weight exercises, etc) is combined with nutrient intake.

However, as you age, you need to increase your protein intake ²³. Around 50 years of age, you need to increase the protein in your diets to 1 gram per kilogram of your body weight to maintain muscle mass ²³. People that exercise regularly also need to eat more protein than the recommended daily intake ²³.

Several studies performed by the group of Philip and others showed that protein supplementation did not further increase muscle strength among individuals who consumed adequate amounts of dietary protein ²⁶, ¹⁰³, ²⁴, ¹⁰⁴. However, with the aim of maximizing performance, individuals seeking to gain muscle mass are likely to consume more protein with the misconceived belief that large quantities of protein consumption might generate more muscle protein ¹⁰⁵.

To increase muscle mass in combination with physical activity, it is recommended that a person that lifts weights regularly or is training for a running or cycling event eat a range of 1.2 to 1.7 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight per day, or 0.5 to 0.8 grams per pound of body weight ²³. Consequently, the same 75
kilogram individual should increase their protein intake to 75 grams (300 calories) to 128 grams (512 calories) in order to gain muscle mass. This level of intake can generally be met through diet alone and without additional protein and amino acid supplementation ²³.

When should I consume protein?

The process of protein turnover is increased with resistance training and can remain elevated for up to 48 hours in people beginning a new resistance training program ²³. Therefore it is important to provide enough energy including protein so there is a sufficient pool of amino acids available to repair and build new muscle. You do not want to exercise on an empty stomach. In fact, exercising in an unfed state leads to an increase in protein loss making it more difficult for your body to both repair and build muscle ²³. Your body can only use approximately 20–40 g of protein per meal. For best results, eat around this much protein every 3 to 4 hours.

Research suggests there are several benefits to pre-exercise protein supplementation ²³. Pre-exercise protein supplementation helps to improve body composition by increasing resting energy expenditure up to 48 hours after exercise ²³. This is important because it suggests that pre-exercise protein ingestion will not only help increase lean muscle mass and strength, but will also simultaneously reduce fat mass ²³. However, the most scientifically supported and most significant benefits of consuming protein prior to exercise may be improved recovery and hypertrophy. This is thought to occur because of improved amino acid delivery ²³.

Make sure you have a healthy diet that meets the current protein intake recommendations and then use supplements to add anything else you might need. A good diet will not make a mediocre athlete into a champion, but poor food choices can turn a champion into a mediocre athlete. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) position stand is that “the use of supplements does not compensate for poor food choices and an inadequate diet”. Reinforcing this importance of food, researchers have found that athletes eating a diet rich in nitrates from vegetables (not supplements) for just 10 days were able to enhance their exercise performance, compared to when they were eating their usual diet ¹⁰⁶.

Protein supplement

Protein supplementation has been shown to improve muscle building with regular exercise training. Protein supplementation should contain a high amount of the amino acid leucine, which is responsible for muscle protein synthesis. Whey protein is a great option for leucine. Eating less protein may not be enough to rebuild muscles, and eating more doesn’t usually give you more benefits.

Whey protein is beneficial in supporting muscle adaptations due to its rapid absorption rate in addition to casein that has a slower and more sustained rate of amino acid absorption over a few hours ²³. Branched chain amino acids are similarly beneficial and have been shown to aid in recovery from exercise with respect to not only protein synthesis but also aiding in replacing our muscle glycogen and delaying fatigue associated with exercise.

Protein supplementation after exercise may have a more profound impact on skeletal muscle hypertrophy. Several studies have demonstrated that protein ingestion following an acute bout of resistance training stimulates muscle protein synthesis for up to three hours ²³. In contrast, failing to eat after exercise
may limit protein synthesis and therefore limit potential progress in lean muscle tissue development. Research actually suggests there may be an “anabolic window” such that protein intake within an hour of exercise has the greatest influence on resistance training adaptations ²³.

Generally, naturally occurring animal proteins contain 2:1:1 ratio of leucine, isoleucine and valine. These proteins have been identified as providing optimal support of muscle adaptations with exercise training. In order to meet the recommended RDA a consumption of approximately 45 mg/kg/day of leucine and 22.5 mg/kg/day of isoleucine and valine is suggested ²³.

What is the best protein powder supplement?

Creatine monohydrate is generally safe and can help you build more muscle mass ¹⁰⁷, ¹⁰⁸, ¹⁰⁹, ¹¹⁰, ¹¹¹, ¹¹², ¹¹³. Always check with your doctor before starting any supplement.

Creatine (N-[aminoiminomethyl]-N-methyl glycine) is an amino acid–like compound that is produced in your liver, kidney, pancreas, and possibly the brain from the biosynthesis of the essential amino acids methionine, glycine, and arginine, or obtained from dietary sources ¹¹⁴. The primary dietary sources are high-protein foods including meat, fish, and poultry. Once synthesized or ingested, creatine is transferred from the plasma through the intestinal wall into other tissues by specific creatine transporters located in skeletal muscles, the kidney, heart, liver, and brain.

Creatine as a dietary supplement is a tasteless, crystalline powder that readily dissolves in liquids and is marketed as creatine monohydrate or as a combination with phosphorous ¹¹⁵. The majority of creatine (95%) is stored in skeletal muscle (fast twitch, type 2): two-thirds in a phosphorylated form and one-third as free creatine ¹¹⁶. Creatine serves as an energy substrate for the contraction of skeletal muscle. The intention of creatine supplementation is to increase resting phosphocreatine levels in muscles, as well as free creatine, with the goal of postponing fatigue, even briefly, for sports-enhancing results ¹⁰⁷.

Creatine is one of the most widely used dietary supplements. Athletes, body builders, and military personnel use creatine to enhance muscle mass and increase strength. Creatine is also used as an ergogenic aid to improve performance of high-intensity exercise of short duration ¹¹⁷, ¹¹⁸, ¹¹⁹. Creatine’s popularity as a dietary supplement was further increased by a 2006 study demonstrating its positive effect on cognitive and psychomotor performance ¹²⁰.

Experiments among athletes and military personnel indicate that creatine taken at levels commonly available in supplements produces minimal, if any, side effects ¹¹⁹, ¹²¹. Using evidence from well-designed, randomized controlled human clinical trials of creatine, Shao and Hathcock ¹²¹ concluded that chronic intake of 5 g/ day of creatine was safe and posed no significant health risks.

Muscle creatine concentrations are increased by 20% with creatine monohydrate supplementation ¹¹⁶. Creatine monohydrate supplements increase lean body mass, as well as strength, power and effectiveness in short-duration, high-intensity exercises ¹²². The increase in body mass may be a result of the increase in intracellular water related to the osmotic properties of creatine ¹²³. Studies on creatine monohydrate supplementation have shown short-duration improvements in sports performance and strength: specifically, in maximum-intensity exercises, muscle power, number of repetitions, muscle endurance, speed and total strength ¹²⁴.

The use of creatine monohydrate can yield increases in power during short sprints of maximum intensity, which can be even more evident when repeated sprints are accompanied by short recovery periods ¹¹². Furthermore, with creatine monohydrate supplementation, effects are also observed in muscle glycogen stores ¹²³. This is important because the availability of muscle glycogen is the main determinant of sports performance in resistance exercises, and its depletion can lead to muscle fatigue ¹²⁵. In addition, creatine monohydrate is one of the few sports foods supplements or ergogenic aids (substance used for the purpose of enhancing performance) with health claims authorised by the EFSA and the European Commission (EC), due to its evident effects on the health and sports performance of athletes ¹²⁶, ¹²⁷.

The approved health claims are ‘Creatine increases physical performance in repeated bursts of high-intensity exercise in the short term’ and ‘Daily creatine consumption can enhance the effect of resistance training on muscle strength in adults over the age of 55’. These health claims refer to the 3-g dose of creatine monohydrate ¹²⁷. Resistance training should be performed at least three times per week for several weeks, at an intensity of at least 65–75% of one repetition maximum (1RM). The target population is adults over the age of 55, who are engaged in regular resistance training ¹²⁷. Creatine in combination with resistance training and improvement in muscle strength ¹²⁷.

Is creatine safe?

There have been reports that creatine may impair liver and kidney function. Creatine has also been linked to an increased risk of compartment syndrome, a condition where pressure builds in a muscle compartment and prevents blood flow. People at risk of kidney problems should check with their doctor before using creatine and be carefully monitored while using it.

There are no data documenting the safety of creatine in children or adolescents. The American Academy of Pediatrics and the American College of Sports Medicine warn that teens should not use performance-enhancing supplements, including creatine, because of the possible health risks ¹²⁸.

Do performance-enhancing dietary supplements work?

Some bodybuilders and athletes use dietary supplements to try to improve their strength, muscle mass, and energy. However, many of these types of products contain harmful ingredients. Also, for some substances, including glutamine, choline, methoxyisoflavone, quercetin, zinc/magnesium aspartate, nitric oxide, and L-arginine, there’s no clear evidence that they improve athletic performance. Studies have looked at a variety of supplements used for bodybuilding or to improve physical performance, including glutamine, choline, methoxyisoflavone, quercetin, zinc/magnesium aspartate, nitric oxide, and L-arginine ¹²⁹, ¹³⁰, ¹³¹, ¹¹³, ¹³², ¹³³. There’s no clear evidence these supplements improve athletic performance ¹²⁹.

The results of studies on beta-alanine, an amino acid found in food and dietary supplements, are mixed but generally don’t show that it improves athletic performance significantly ¹³⁴.

Are bodybuilding supplements safe?

Dangerous hidden ingredients are an increasing problem in products promoted for bodybuilding, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) warns ¹³⁵, ¹³⁶, ¹³⁷. Consumers may unknowingly take products laced with prescription drug ingredients, controlled substances, and other ingredients.

• Bodybuilding supplements often are adulterated with anabolic steroids that are modified variants of male hormones designed to increase muscle mass.
• Liver injury from taking bodybuilding dietary supplements has increased in recent years. Bodybuilding products are the most common cause of liver injury linked to herbal and dietary supplement use.
• Products containing the stimulants beta-methylphenethylamine (BMPEA) or 1,3-dimethylamylamine (DMAA) an an amphetamine derivative can cause serious health problems.
  • Supplements labeled as containing the herb Acacia rigidula often contain beta-methylphenethylamine (BMPEA), although BMPEA isn’t in the herb and isn’t a dietary ingredient.
  • 1,3-dimethylamylamine (DMAA) containing products marketed as dietary supplements are illegal. In 2013, the FDA began taking action to remove these products from the market ¹³⁷. However, DMAA is still found in some products marketed as supplements, including under different names, such as geranium oil.
• Some dietary supplements may interact with drugs or other supplements. Some vitamins and minerals are harmful at high doses. Talk with your health care provider before using a dietary supplement for bodybuilding or endurance.

Fat

You need to eat some fat even when you are trying to lose weight. The human body needs small amounts (3 to 6 grams) of essential fatty acids (Omega-6 and Omega-3 fatty acids). Fat is important for many body processes. Fat helps your body absorb nutrients and move nutrients around your body. Some fat is necessary as a carrier for the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K. Fat is the main source of energy storage in your body, fat contributes to cellular structure and function, fat keeps you warm, and protects your organs ¹³⁸, ¹³⁹, ¹⁴⁰. Fat also helps with hormone production. Therefore your diet should not be devoid of fat. However, because fat is calorically dense (1 gram of fat has 9 calories of energy), it is often decreased on weight-loss diets to reduce energy intake.

Fat needs will vary by individual and will depend largely on your body composition goals and body types. For example, dietary fat recommendations are slightly higher in competitive athletes than non-athletes to promote health, maintain healthy hormone function, and maintain energy balance. Typical recommendations for athletes are 30 to 50% of total energy intake.

There are 4 main types of fats:

1. Unsaturated fats are those that are liquid at room temperature. The two kinds of unsaturated fats are monounsaturated fat and polyunsaturated fat. Both of these unsaturated fats are typically liquid at room temperature. Unsaturated fats are in fish, such as salmon, trout and herring, and plant-based foods such as avocados, olives and walnuts. Liquid vegetable oils, such as soybean oil, corn oil, safflower oil, canola oil, olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil and sunflower oil, also contain unsaturated fats. Eaten in moderation, both kinds of unsaturated fats may help improve your blood cholesterol when used in place of saturated and trans fats. You want to include as many unsaturated fats in your diet because they can decrease bad cholesterol, contain high amounts of antioxidants such as Vitamin E, and contain essential omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. Unsaturated fats are typically classified by how many hydrogen bonds they have in their structure: either 1 (mono) or two or more (poly).
2. Monounsaturated fats. Monounsaturated fat is a type of unsaturated fat. Monounsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature but start to harden when chilled. Monounsaturated fats is one of the healthy fats, along with polyunsaturated fat. Monounsaturated fats are good for your health in several ways:
   • Monounsaturated fats can help lower your LDL (bad) cholesterol level. Cholesterol is a soft, waxy substance that can cause clogged, or blocked, arteries (blood vessels). Keeping your LDL level low reduces your risk for heart disease and stroke.
   • Eating plant foods high in monounsaturated fats, particularly extra virgin olive oil and tree nuts, may benefit heart health and blood sugar regulation. Monounsaturated fats from plants may lower bad cholesterol and raise good cholesterol. They also may improve the control of blood sugar levels. Replacing saturated fats with monounsaturated fats in your diet may lower the level of bad cholesterol and triglycerides in your blood. Triglycerides are fat cells that circulate in the bloodstream and are stored in the body’s fat cells. A high level of triglycerides in the blood increases the risk of diseases of the heart and blood vessels.
   • Monounsaturated fats help develop and maintain your cells.
   • Monounsaturated fats are found in plant foods, such as nuts, avocados, and vegetable oils. Monounsaturated fats are found in red meats and dairy products. About half the fats in these foods are saturated and half monounsaturated. Many plants and plant oils are high in monounsaturated fats but low in saturated fats. These include:
     • Oils from olives, peanuts, canola seeds, safflower seeds, and sunflower seeds.
     • Avocadoes.
     • Pumpkin seeds.
     • Sesame seeds.
     • Almonds.
     • Cashews.
     • Peanuts and peanut butter.
     • Pecans.
3. Polyunsaturated fats. Polyunsaturated fat is a type of unsaturated fat. Polyunsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature but start to harden when chilled. Polyunsaturated fats include omega-3 and omega-6 fats. These are essential fatty acids that your body needs for brain function and cell growth. Your body does not make essential fatty acids, so you must get them from food. Polyunsaturated fats can help lower your LDL (bad) cholesterol. Cholesterol is a soft, waxy substance that can cause clogged or blocked arteries (blood vessels). Having low LDL cholesterol reduces your risk for heart disease. Polyunsaturated fats is one of the healthy fats, along with monunsaturated fat. Polyunsaturated fat is found in plant and animal foods, such as salmon, vegetable oils, and some nuts and seeds.
   1. Omega-3 fatty acids are good for your heart in several ways. They help:
      • Reduce triglycerides, a type of fat in your blood
      • Reduce the risk of developing an irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia)
      • Slow the buildup of plaque, a substance comprising fat, cholesterol, and calcium, which can harden and clog your arteries
      • Slightly lower your blood pressure
   2. Sources of omega-3 fatty acids include:
      • Fish such as salmon, anchovies, mackerel, herring, sardines and tuna.
      • Oils from canola seeds, soybeans, walnuts and flaxseed.
      • Soybeans.
      • Chia seeds.
      • Flaxseed.
      • Walnuts.
   3. Omega-6 fatty acids may help:
      • Control your blood sugar
      • Reduce your risk for diabetes
      • Lower your blood pressure
   4. Sources of omega-6 fatty acids include:
      • Corn oil.
      • Cottonseed oil.
      • Peanut oil.
      • Soybean oil.
      • Sunflower oil.
4. Saturated fats. Saturated fats are those that are solid at room temperature. Examples include margarine, butter, whole fat dairy products, the fat marbling in meats, and coconut oil. Saturated fats don’t need to be avoided entirely, but diets high in saturated fats can increase bad cholesterol and triglycerides, increasing the risk for heart disease. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans suggest that less than 10% of calories a day should be from saturated fats. The American Heart Association recommends that saturated fats only make up 5 to 6% of your daily calories. For a 2,000 calorie diet, that is a total of 100 calories, or 11 grams a day. Foods high in saturated fats include:
   • Foods baked or fried using saturated fats.
   • Meats, including beef, lamb, pork as well as poultry, especially with skin.
   • Lard.
   • Dairy products like butter and cream.
   • Whole or 2% milk.
   • Whole-milk cheese or yogurt.
   • Oils from coconuts, palm fruits, or palm kernels.
5. Trans fats. Trans fatty acids are unhealthy fats that form when vegetable oil goes through a process called hydrogenation. This leads the fat to harden and become solid at room temperature. Hydrogenated fats, partially hydrogenated oils (PHOs) or “trans fats,” are often used to keep some foods fresh for a long time. Trans fats are unsaturated fats that are artificially turned into saturated fats and increase heart disease and stroke risk by raising bad LDL cholesterol and decreasing good HDL cholesterol levels. High LDL (bad) cholesterol along with low HDL (good) cholesterol levels can cause cholesterol to build up in your arteries (blood vessels). This increases your risk for heart disease and stroke. Trans fats have also been known to increase the risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Trans fats are most commonly found in fried foods, frozen baked products such as pizza, non-dairy coffee creamers, vegetable shortenings, some margarines, crackers, cookies, snack foods, and other foods made with or fried in partially hydrogenated oils (PHOs). Because of the health risks from trans fats, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has banned food manufacturers from adding partially hydrogenated oils (PHOs) to foods. Although the food industry has greatly reduced the use of trans fat in recent years, trans fat may still be found in many fried, packaged, or processed foods. There are very small amounts of naturally occurring trans fat in meats and dairy from grazing animals, such as cows, sheep and goats. You should avoid foods made with hydrogenated and partially hydrogenated oils (such as hard butter and margarine). They may contain high levels of trans fatty acids. It is important to read nutrition labels on foods. This will help you know what kinds of fats, and how much, your food contains.

How much fat do I need?

To prevent any fatty acid deficiencies it is recommended that you consume at minimum 1g of fat per kg of body weight per day. According to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans ⁷¹, fats should make up 20 to 35% of your total daily calorie intake. For those attempting to lose body fat, 0.5 to 1 fat per kg of body weight per day should be consumed per day to avoid essential fatty acid deficiency. For healthy children ages 1 to 3, ages 4 to 18, and adults, approximately 30 to 40%, 25 to 15%, and 20 to 35% of daily energy intake should come from fat, respectively ⁶⁹. Approximately 5 to 10% of your daily fat energy intake should consist of Omega−6 fatty acids (linoleic acid) and 0.6 to 1.2% of Omega−3 fatty acids (alpha-linolenic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid [EPA] and docosahexaenoic acid [DHA]) ⁷⁰. Both omega−6 fatty acids (linoleic acid) and omega−3 fatty acids (alpha-linolenic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid [EPA] and docosahexaenoic acid [DHA]) are considered essential fatty acids, meaning that they must be obtained from your diet ¹⁴¹. Apha-linolenic acid can be converted into eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and then to docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), but the conversion (which occurs primarily in your liver) is very limited, with reported rates of less than 15% ¹⁴², ¹⁴³. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are essential fatty acids, meaning the body can’t produce them and they must come from your diet ¹⁴⁴. Therefore, consuming eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) directly from foods and/or dietary supplements is the only practical way to increase levels of these fatty acids in your body.

Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are omega-3 fatty acids found in varying amounts in seafood such as cold-water fish like salmon, tuna, herring, and mackerel, as well as in fish oil supplements and seaweed. Eating 8 ounces per week of seafood may help reduce the risk for heart disease.

Some researchers propose that the relative intakes of omega-6s and omega-3s, the omega-6/omega-3 ratio, may have important implications for the cause of many chronic diseases, such as heart and blood vessels disease (cardiovascular disease) and cancer ¹⁴⁵, but the optimal ratio, if any, has not been defined ¹⁴⁶. Others have concluded that the omega-6/omega-3 ratios are too nonspecific and are insensitive to individual fatty acid levels ¹⁴⁷, ¹⁴⁸, ¹⁴⁹.. Most agree that raising EPA and DHA blood levels is far more important than lowering linoleic acid or arachidonic acid levels ¹⁴³.

For someone who weighs 150lbs (68kg), this would equate to 34-68g fat per day. Using both of these references you can calculate your daily fat needs:

To calculate your daily fat needs:

• Convert body weight in pounds to kilograms (round to the nearest 10th).
 Multiply weight in kilograms by 1.

Let’s look at an example:

• Convert pounds into kilograms 150lbs / 2.2 = 68.2kg

The recommended fat intake is 1 gram per kilogram of body weight per day

• 68.2kg (1g grams of fat per kilogram) = 68.2g of fat per day

Weight loss diets that are moderate to low in fat (20 to 30% of calories) are called “balanced deficit” diets because they maintain a reasonable balance among macronutrients similar to that recommended in MyPlate, DASH, and the Dietary Guidelines for Americans ⁷¹, ¹⁵⁰. They tend to achieve most of the caloric deficit by reducing fat from the typical level in North American Diets of about 34% or more of calories to 20 to 30% fat, 15% protein, and 55 to 65% of calories from carbohydrates. Some examples of low fat diets are the Weight Watchers Diet (25% fat, 20% protein, and 55% carbohydrate, with 26 grams of dietary fiber), Jenny Craig, the National Cholesterol Education Program Step 1 diet (25% fat), diets based on the MyPlate, the DASH diet, the Shape up and Drop 10 diet of Shape Up! America and the Nutrisystem diet ⁶⁷. Popular diet books using this approach include The Biggest Loser Diet, The Mayo Clinic Diet and The Engine 2 Die ⁶⁷. These dietary patterns have been extensively reviewed and appear to be effective for weight reduction on low calorie diets for most individuals ⁶⁷.

Very low-fat diets such as the Pritikin Diet ¹⁵¹, the Ornish Diet ¹⁵² and The Spark Solution Diet ¹⁵³ have been advocated not only for weight reduction, but also for improving cardiovascular risk profiles. The Ornish Diet ¹⁵², which is very low in fat (13% of calories) and saturated fat, very high in carbohydrate (81% of calories) and very high in fiber (38 grams), is part of a program that includes nonsmoking, exercise and behavior modification. The Ornish Diet ¹⁵² was shown to reduce some cardiovascular risk factors in a limited long term study. For those who can adhere to the Ornish regime it may be helpful. However, it may not be appropriate for all populations, such as diabetics.

What are Healthy fats?

Healthy fats include:

• Monounsaturated fats
• Polyunsaturated fats (omega-3 and omega-6).

The healthier fats are unsaturated fats. They can be found in sunflower oil, safflower oil, peanut and olive oils, poly- and mono-unsaturated margarine spreads, nuts, seeds and avocado. These are much better for you than the saturated fat found in butter, cream, fatty meats, sausages, biscuits, cakes and fried foods.

Foods that contain healthy monounsaturated fats include:

• Avocados and their oils/spreads
• Unsalted nuts such as almonds, cashews and peanuts and their butters/spreads
• Olives and their oils/spreads
• Cooking oils made from plants or seeds, including: olive, canola, peanut, sunflower, soybean, sesame and safflower.

Foods that contain healthy polyunsaturated fats (omega-3 and omega-6) include:

• Oily fish like salmon, mackerel and sardines
• Tahini (sesame seed spread)
• Linseed (flaxseed) and chia seeds
• Soybean, sunflower, safflower, canola oil and margarine spreads made from these oils
• Pine nuts, walnuts and brazil nuts.

It is important to choose foods with the healthiest type of fat such as avocados, olives, nuts and seeds, and use healthy oils for cooking, for example, olive, canola, sunflower, peanut and soybean oil.

Reduce the amount of highly processed food you eat such as baked goods including cakes, biscuits and pastries, along with processed meat, and fried and takeaway foods. These foods are high in saturated and trans fats, added sugar and salt, and are not part of a heart-healthy eating pattern. Try to have these foods only sometimes and in small amounts.

Many Americans eat more fat than they need, which can lead to weight gain and heart disease.

What are Unhealthy fats?

Unhealthy fats include:

• Saturated fat
• Trans fat

Foods rich in unhealthy fats include:

• Animal fats including butter, ghee and lard along with the visible fat/skin on meat
• Hydrogenated plant oils like copha, vegetable shortening and some margarines
• Coconut oil
• Processed foods such as baked goods (cakes, biscuits and pastries), processed meat ( bacon, sausages, salami) and fried and takeaway foods.

Replace foods rich in saturated and trans fats with foods rich in healthy unsaturated fats as part of a healthy diet.

It is important to choose foods with the healthiest type of fat such as avocados, olives, nuts and seeds, and use healthy oils for cooking, for example, olive, canola, sunflower, peanut and soybean oil.

Reduce the amount of highly processed food you eat such as baked goods including cakes, biscuits and pastries, along with processed meat, and fried and takeaway foods. These foods are high in saturated and trans fats, added sugar and salt, and are not part of a heart-healthy eating pattern. Try to have these foods only sometimes and in small amounts.

Many Americans eat more fat than they need, which can lead to weight gain and heart disease.

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